1. A Presentation by GROUP 9
Group Members
•COLLINS BROBBEY
•ROSE PUPLAMPU
•MARY ADJEI
•RISCILLA A. ASARE
•BENEDICTA
•TAMAKLOE

2.
1.0 DEFINITION
2.0 THEORIES OF LEADERSHIP
3.0 LEADERSHIP TRAITS
4.0 CONTEXTS OF LEADERSHIP
5.0 STYLES OF LEADERSHIP
6.0 OTHER LEADERSHIP STYLES
7.0 AFRICAN LEADERS AND THEIR LEDERSHIP STYLES
NELSON MANDELA
KWAME NKRUMAH
JULIUS NYERERE
ROBERT MUGABE
OTHERS LEADERS
8.0 LEADERSHIP SECRETS OF ATTILA THE HUN
9.0 RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS

4.  #“the process of social influence in which one
person can enlist the aid and support of others in
the accomplishment of a common task.” Chemers,
M. M. (2002).
 # Leadership is "organizing a group of people to
achieve a common goal." www.wikipedia.org
 # Leadership is the ability to influence people
towards the attainment of organizational goals,
(Richard L. Daft, 2006)

5. There cannot be one, all-encompassing
definition of leadership. This is because;
 Leadership involves using a whole range of
skills, attitudes and behaviours
and
 The way in which people perceive leadership
varies from person to person and from
organization to organization. (University of
Leicester, 2002)

6. We would define Leadership as “the process of directing
the behaviour of others in a co-ordinated effort towards
The accomplishment of some common objectives”.
As an element in social interaction, leadership is a
complex activity involving:
 a process of influence
 actors who are both leaders and followers
 a range of possible outcomes; the achievement of goals,
but also the commitment of individuals to such goals
and the enhancement of group cohesion.

8.  2.1 EARLY HISTORY (TRAIT THEORY)
It was once common to believe that leaders were
born rather than made.
Galton (1869) concluded that leadership was
inherited. In other words, leaders were born, not
developed

9.  2.1 EARLY HISTORY (TRAIT THEORY
For decades, this trait-based perspective dominated
empirical and theoretical work in leadership. Zaccaro, S. J.
(2007). Using early research techniques, researchers conducted
over a hundred studies proposing a number of characteristics
that distinguished leaders from nonleaders:
 Intelligence
 Dominance
 Adaptability
 Persistence
 Integrity
 Socioeconomic status
 Self-confidence just to name a few(Bass, B.M. & Bass, R. 2008)

10.  2.2 RISE OF ALTERNATIVE THEORIES
In the 1940-1950s, a series of qualitative reviews of these studies
prompted researchers to take a drastically different view of the
driving forces behind leadership.
In reviewing the extant literature, Stogdill and Mann found that while
some traits were common across a number of studies, the overall
evidence suggested that persons who are leaders in one situation may
not necessarily be leaders in other situations. Subsequently,
leadership was no longer characterized as an enduring individual trait, as
situational approaches posited that individuals can be effective in certain
situations, but not others.
This approach dominated much of the leadership
theory and research for the next few decades.

11.  2.3 REEMERGENCE OF TRAIT THEORY
New methods and measurements were developed after these
influential reviews that would ultimately re-establish the trait
theory as a viable approach to the study of leadership
Additionally, during the 1980s statistical advances allowed
researchers to conduct meta-analyses, in which they could
quantitatively analyze and summarize the findings from a wide
array of studies. This advent allowed trait theorists to create a
comprehensive and parsimonious picture of previous leadership
research rather than rely on the qualitative reviews of the past.

12. Equipped with new methods, leadership
researchers revealed the following:
 Individuals can and do emerge as leaders
across a variety of situations and tasks.
(Kenny, D.A. & Zaccaro, S.J., 1983)
 Significant relationships exist between
leadership and such individual traits

13. Specifically, Zaccaro (2007) noted that trait theories still:
1. Focus on a small set of individual attributes such as Big Five
personality, to the neglect of cognitive abilities, motives, values,
social skills, expertise, and problem-solving skills.
2. Fail to consider patterns or integrations of multiple attributes
3. Do not distinguish between those leader attributes that are
generally not malleable over time and those that are shaped by,
and bound to, situational influences
4. Do not consider how stable leader attributes account for the
behavioural diversity necessary for effective leadership

14.  2.4 ATTRIBUTE PATTERN APPROACH
In contrast to the traditional approach, the leader attribute
pattern approach is based on theorists' arguments that the
influence of individual characteristics on outcomes is best
understood by considering the person as an integrated totality
rather than a summation of individual variables
In other words, the leader attribute pattern approach argues
That combinations of individual differences may explain
substantial variance in both leader emergence and leader
effectiveness beyond that explained by single attributes, or by
additive combinations of multiple attributes

15.  2.5 STYLE THEORIES
Theorists began to research leadership as a set of behaviours, evaluating
the behaviour of 'successful' leaders, determining behaviour taxonomy
and identifying broad leadership styles.
Kurt Lewin, Ronald Lipitt, and Ralph White developed in 1939 the
seminal work on the influence of leadership styles and performance.
They evaluated the performance of groups of eleven-year-old boys under
different types of work climate. In each, the leader exercised his influence
regarding the type of group decision making, praise and criticism
(feedback), and the management of the group tasks (project management)
according to three styles: (1) authoritarian, (2) democratic and (3) laissez-
faire.

16.  2.6 BEHAVIOURAL THEORIES
B.F. Skinner is the father of Behaviour
Modification and developed the concept of
positive reinforcement. Positive reinforcement
occurs when a positive stimulus is presented in
response to behaviour, increasing the likelihood
of that behaviour in the future. (Miltenberger,
R.G., 2004).
Organizations such as Frito-Lay, 3M, Goodrich,
Michigan Bell, and Emery Air Freight have all used
reinforcement to increase productivity

17. The managerial grid model is based on a behavioural
theory. The model was developed by Robert Blake and
Jane Mouton in 1964 and suggests five different
Leadership styles,
based on the leaders'
concern for people
and their
concern for goal
achievement.

18.  2.7 SITUATIONAL AND CONTINGENCY
THEORIES
Situational theory also appeared as a reaction to
the trait theory of leadership
This falls under;
• Fiedler contingency model
• Vroom-Yetton decision model
• Path-goal theory
• Hersey-Blanchard situational theory

19.  2.8 FUNCTIONAL THEORY
Functional leadership theory is a particularly useful
theory for addressing specific leader behaviours
expected to contribute to organizational or unit
effectiveness.
A leader can be said to have done
their job well when they have contributed to group
effectiveness and cohesion

20. Morgeson(2005), Klein, Zeigert, Knight, and Xiao
(2006) observed five broad functions a leader
performs when promoting organisation's
effectiveness. These functions include:
1. environmental monitoring
2. organizing subordinate activities
3. teaching and coaching subordinates,
4. motivating others
5. intervening actively in the group's work.

21.  2.9 TRANSACTIONAL AND
TRANSFORMATIONAL THEORIES
Eric Berne analyzed the relations between a
group and its leadership in terms of;
• Transactional Analysis.
• Transformational Analysis

22.  The transactional leader (Burns, 1978) is given
power to perform certain tasks and reward or
punish for the team's performance. It gives
the opportunity to the manager to lead the
group and the group agrees to follow his lead
to accomplish a predetermined goal in
exchange for something else

23.  The transformational leader (Burns, 1978)
Motivates its team to be effective and efficient.
Communication is the base for goal
achievement focusing the group on the final
desired outcome or goal attainment.
This leader is highly visible and uses chain of
command to get the job done.

24.  2.10 EMOTIONS
Leadership can be perceived as a particularly emotion-
laden process, with emotions entwined with the social
influence process. (George J.M. 2000). In an organization,
the leader's mood has some effects on his/her group.
These effects can be described in 3 levels:
• The mood of individual group members. Group
members with leaders in a positive mood experience
more positive mood than do group members with
leaders in a negative mood.
• The affective tone of the group. Group affective tone is
an aggregate of the moods of the individual members of
the group and refers to mood at the group level of
analysis.
• Group processes like coordination, effort expenditure,
and task strategy. Public expressions of mood impact
how group members think and act.

25.  2.11 NEO-EMERGENT THEORY
The Neo-emergent leadership theory (from the Oxford school of
leadership) espouses that leadership is created through the emergence
of information by the leader or other stakeholders, not through the
true actions of the leader himself. In other words, the reproduction of
information or stories form the basis of the perception of leadership or
by the majority
In modern society, the press, blogs and other sources report
their own views of a leader, which may be based on reality, but may
also be based on a political command, a payment, or an inherent
interest of the author, media or leader.
Therefore, it can be contended that the perception of all leaders is
created and
in fact does not reflect their true leadership qualities at all.

26.  2.12 ENVIRONMENTAL LEADERSHIP
THEORY
The Environmental leadership model describes leadership from a
Group dynamics perspective incorporating group psychology and
self awareness to nurture "Environments" that promote self
sustaining group leadership.
Environmental Leadership is not about changing the mindset of
the group or individual, but in the cultivation of an environment
that brings out the best and inspires the individuals in that group
It is not the ability to influence others to do something they are not
committed to, but rather to nurture a culture that motivates and even
excites individuals to do what is required for the benefit of all.

28.  A good leader must have the discipline to work
toward his or her vision single-mindedly, as
well as to direct his or her actions and those of
the team toward the goal. Action is the mark of
a leader. A leader does not suffer “analysis
paralysis” but is always doing something in
pursuit of the vision, inspiring others to do the
same.

30. Beyond these basic traits, leaders of today must
also possess traits which will help them motivate
others and lead them in new directions.
Leaders of the future must be able to envision the
future and convince others that their vision is
worth following. To do this, they must have the
following personality traits:

31.  High energy
 Intuitiveness
 Maturity
 Team orientation
 Empathy
 Charisma.
However the list is ever growing and no definitive
list is possible. Intrinsic traits such as intelligence,
good looks, height and so on are not necessary to
become a leader. Anyone can cultivate the proper
leadership traits.

33.  4.1 ORGANIZATIONS
The bureaucratic structure forms the basis for the
appointment of heads or chiefs of administrative
subdivisions in the organization and endows them
with the authority attached to their position.
In contrast to the appointed head or chief of an
administrative unit, a leader emerges within the context
of the informal organization that underlies the formal
structure. The informal organization expresses the
personal objectives and goals of the individual
membership. Their objectives and goals may or may not
coincide with those of the formal organization.

34.  4.2 MANAGEMENT
Over the years the philosophical terminology of
"management" and "leadership" have, in the
organisational context, been used both as synonyms and
with clearly differentiated meanings. Debate is fairly
common about whether the use of these terms should be
restricted, and generally reflects an awareness of the
distinction made by Burns (1978) between
"transactional" leadership (characterised by e.g.
emphasis on procedures, contingent reward,
management by exception) and "transformational"
leadership (characterised by e.g. charisma, personal
relationships, creativity).

35.  4.3 GROUP LEADERSHIP
In contrast to individual leadership, some organizations have
adopted group leadership. In this situation, more than one
person provides direction to the group as a whole. Some
organizations have taken this approach in hopes of increasing
creativity, reducing costs, or downsizing.
A common example of group leadership involves cross-functional
teams. A team of people with diverse skills and from all parts of an
organization assembles to lead a project. A team structure can
involve sharing power equally on all issues, but more commonly
uses rotating leadership.
The team member(s) best able to handle any
given phase of the project become(s) the temporary leader(s).
Additionally, as each team member has the opportunity to experience
the elevated level of empowerment, it energizes staff and feeds the
cycle of success.

36.  4.4 PRIMATES
Mark van Vugt and Anjana Ahuja in Naturally Selected: The
Evolutionary Science of Leadership present evidence of leadership in
nonhuman animals, from leadership in ants and bees to baboons and
chimpanzees;
They suggest that leadership has a long evolutionary history and
that the same mechanisms underpinning leadership in humans can
be found in other social species too.
Many animals beyond apes are territorial, compete, exhibit violence,
and have a social structure controlled by a dominant male (lions,
wolves, etc.), suggesting Wrangham and Peterson's evidence is not
empirical.
However, we must examine other species as well, including
elephants (which are matriarchal and follow an alpha female),
meerkats (who are likewise matriarchal), and many others.

38. Leadership style refers to a leader's behaviour. It is
the result of the philosophy, personality and
experience of the leader.
In "Patterns of aggressive behaviour in
experimentally created social climates", Journal of
Social Psychology 10: 271–301, Kurt Lewin and
colleagues identified different styles of leadership:
 Autocratic
 Participative or democratic
 Laissez-Faire

39.  5.1 AUTOCRATIC OR AUTHORITARIAN
STYLE
The classical approach
• Manager retains as much power and
decision making authority as possible
• Does not consult staff, nor allow them to give
any input
• Staff expected to obey orders without receiving
any explanations
• Structured set of rewards and punishments

40. Autocratic leaders:
• Rely on threats and punishment to influence
staff
• Do not trust staff
• Do not allow for employee input

41.  • Sometimes the most effective style to use
When:
􀂉 New, untrained staff do not know which tasks to
perform or which procedures to follow
􀂉 Effective supervision provided only through
detailed orders and instructions
􀂉 Staff do not respond to any other leadership style
􀂉 Limited time in which to make a decision
􀂉 A manager’s power challenged by staff
􀂉 Work needs to be coordinated with another
department or organization

42.  Should not be used
When:
􀂉 Staff become tense, fearful, or resentful
􀂉 Staff expect their opinions heard
􀂉 Staff depend on their manager to make all their
decisions
􀂉 Low staff morale, high turnover and absenteeism
and work stoppage

43.  Democratic Leadership Style
Also known as participative style
• Encourages staff to be a part of the decision
making
• Keeps staff informed about everything that
affects their work and shares decision making
and problem solving responsibilities.

44.  The leader
A coach who has the final say, but gathers
information from staff before making a decision.
• Produce high quality and high quantity work
for long periods of time
• Staff like the trust they receive and respond
with cooperation, team spirit, and high morale

45.  The democratic leader
Develops plans to help staff evaluate their
own performance
• Allows staff to establish goals
• Encourages staff to grow on the job and be
promoted
• Recognizes and encourages achievement

46.  Not always appropriate
• Most successful when used with highly
skilled or experienced staff or when
implementing operational changes or
resolving individual or group problems

47.  Most effective
When:
􀂉 Wants to keep staff informed about matters that affect them.
􀂉 Wants staff to share in decision-making and problem-solving
duties.
􀂉 Wants to provide opportunities for staff to develop a high
sense of personal growth and job satisfaction.
􀂉 A large or complex problem that requires lots of input to solve
􀂉 Changes must be made or problems solved that affect staff
􀂉 Want to encourage team building and participation

48.  Democratic leadership should not be used
when …
• Not enough time to get everyone’s
input
• Easier and more cost-effective for the manager
to make the decision
• Can’t afford mistakes
• Manager feels threatened by this type of
leadership
• Staff safety is a critical concern

49.  Laissez-Faire Leadership Style
Also known as the “hands-off¨ style
• The manager provides little or no direction
and gives staff as much freedom as
possible
• All authority or power given to the staff and
they determine goals, make decisions, and
resolve problems on their own

50.  An effective style to use …
• Staff highly skilled, experienced, and
educated
• Staff have pride in their work and the drive
to do it successfully on their own
• Outside experts, such as staff specialists or
consultants used
• Staff trustworthy and experienced

51.  Should not be used …
• Staff feel insecure at the unavailability of a manager
• The manager cannot provide regular feedback to
staff on how well they are doing
• Managers unable to thank staff for their good work
• The manager doesn’t understand his or her
responsibilities and hoping the staff cover for him
or her

53.  Bureaucratic Leadership Style
Manages “by the book¨
• Everything done according to procedure or policy
• If not covered by the book, referred to the next level
above
A police officer not a leader
Enforces the rules

54.  Most effective
When:
􀂉 Staff performing routine tasks over and over
􀂉 Staff need to understand certain standards or
procedures.
􀂉 Safety or security training conducted
􀂉 Staff performing tasks that require handling cash

55.  Ineffective
When:
􀂉 Work habits form that are hard to break,
especially if they are no longer useful
􀂉 Staff lose their interest in their jobs and in
their co-workers
􀂉 Staff do only what is expected of them and no more

56.  Transformational Leadership
• Creates and sustains a context that maximizes
human and organizational capabilities;
• Facilitate multiple levels of transformation; and
• Align them with core values and a unified
purpose
To respond to a dynamic
environment

57.  Transactional Leadership
• Emphasizes getting things done within the
umbrella of the status quo
• In opposition to transformational leadership
• “By the book" approach - the person works
within the rules
• Commonly seen in large, bureaucratic
organizations

58.  Creative Leadership
• Ability to uniquely inspire people,
• To generate shared innovative responses and
solutions.
To complex and readily changing situations

59.  Corrective Leadership
• Empowers staff to facilitate collaborative and
synergism
• Working with and through other people
instead of bowing to authoritarianism

60.  Change Leadership
• Endorses alteration
• Beyond thinking about individuals and
individual organization, single problems and
single solutions
• Rethinking systems to introduce change on
parts of the whole and their relationship to one
another

61.  Intelligence Leadership
• To navigate the future by embracing ambiguity
and reframing problems as opportunities
• A proactive stance in taking their organizations
into uncharted territory

62.  Multicultural Leadership
• Fosters team and individual effectiveness
• Drives for innovation by leveraging
multicultural differences
• Teams work harder in an atmosphere of
understanding and mutual respect

63.  Pedagogical Leadership
• Paradigm shift from leader/teacher centered
"orientation" to an interactive, connective
organizational system using a democratic
• learning and communicative style
An alternative to instructional leadership by enabling
the learning and intellectual growth of those led

64.  Servant Leadership
• A practical philosophy focusing on people who
choose to serve first and then lead as a way
of expanding service
Servant leaders are "servants first" with the object of
making sure that other people's highest priority needs
are being served
• Leaders put the needs of their followers first;
these leaders rare in business

65.  Bridging leadership
Fostering synergy and reinforcing behavior and
motivation through the use of communication to
create climate of trust and confidence
Projection of confidence on the face of a difficult
challenge

66.  Purposeful Leadership
Leader and the community share a common purpose to
develop or provide the drive, authority and
commitment to undertake projects

68.  Mandela has won a number of political hearts
for as indicated earlier, four most frequent.
That is;
1. National political activist
2. Continental diplomat
3. The conscience of the globe
4. A combination of philanthropist and social
development practitioner

69.  KWAME NKRUMAH
Kwame Nkrumah’s ambition soared above that of
all others. Having successfully challenged the
might of British rule in Africa and opened the
way to independence for a score of other African
countries, he saw himself as a messianic leader
destined to play an even greater role.

70.  JULIUS NYERERE
Nyerere joined the Tanganyika African Association.
Under Nyerere's leadership the organization
espoused peaceful change, social equality, and racial
harmony and rejected tribalism and all forms of
racial and ethnic discrimination.
He was a strong advocate of economic and political
measures in dealing with the apartheid policies of South Africa.
Nyerere was chairman of a group of five frontline African
presidents who advocated the overthrow of white supremacy
in Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe), South Africa, and South West
Africa now Namibia.

71.  ROBERT MUGABE
Indeed Mugabe’s intransigence maybe precisely because
Zimbabwean’s opposition to Zanu-PF is more deeply
democratic than in most of Africa.
Pose against the ruling party not democratic enough to have
developed an evolutionary and ordered succession procedures (one
reason Mugabe does not leave), the Movement for Democratic
Change (MDC) and its base may not allow Mugabe, the compromises
facilitating many African presidents’ departures.
They would not allow a truth and justice commission to slide away
(note the word “justice” rather than “reconciliation” Mugabe’s critics
do not want him to gain amnesty for his
crimes).

72.  OTHER AFRICAN LEADERS
Inamdi Azikewe’s value based leadership allows
him to delegate power and authority when need
be. He does not Apart from Mandela, Khama and
Ramgoolam, African leaders and elites did not
establish political systems that bore any
resemblance to indigenous systems.
By the end of the 1980s, not a single African head of state
in three decades had allowed himself to be voted out of
office. Out of some 150 heads of state who had trodden
the African stage, only six had managed to voluntarily
relinquish power.
Seretse Khama, like Dawda Jawara, and Ramgoolam, preached the gospel of
inclusive democracy, and he aptly showed his commitment to democratic
principles

74. Attila embarked immediately upon a series of wars
extending Hun rule from the Rhine across the north
of the Black Sea as far as the Caspian Sea
Finally, Attila forged an alliance with the Franks and
Vandals and in Spring 451 unleashed his long-threatened
attack into the heart of Western Europe.
Near Troyes the opposing forces joined battle at Chalons in one
of the decisive battles of European history. Though the margin
of victory was slim, the Western army prevailed, precipitating
Attila's withdrawal back across the Rhine and avoiding a
decisive shift in the course of political and economic
development in Western Europe

75.  LESSONS OR SECRETS OF ATTILA
1. LUST FOR LEADERSHIP: “YOU’VE GOT TO WANT TO BE IN CHARGE”
2. NEVER CONDONE A LACK OF MORALE OR DISCIPLINE
3. MAKE OTHERS ADAPT TO YOUR "CUSTOMS"
4. ALWAYS APPEAR AS THE ONE IN CHARGE
5. LEADING THE CHARGE: “RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE CHIEFTAIN”
6. THE ESSENTIALS OF DECISIVENESS
7. USE TIMING IN MAKING DECISIONS
8. EXPLOIT THE DESIRE TO ENJOY THE SPOILS OF WAR
9. EXPECT CONTINUAL IMPROVEMENT
10. THE ART OF DELEGATION

77.  Varying Leadership Style
We believe that three factors that influence which
leadership style use in an organization.
1.0 The manager’s personal background:
What personality, knowledge, values, ethics, and experiences does the
manager have? What does he or she think will work?
2.0 Staff being supervised: Staff individuals with different personalities
and backgrounds; the leadership style used will vary depending on
the individual staff and what he or she will respond best to.
3.0 The organization: The traditions, values, philosophy, and concerns of
the organization influence how a manager acts

78.  Determining the best leadership Style
Different situations call for different leadership styles. In an emergency when
there is little time to converge on an agreement and where a designated
authority has significantly more experience or expertise than the rest of the
team, an autocratic leadership style may be most effective; however, in a
highly motivated and aligned team with a homogeneous level of expertise, a
more democratic or laissez-faire style may be more effective. The style
adopted should be the one that most effectively achieves the objectives of the
group while balancing the interests of its individual members.
Managers need to be leaders. . .

79.  Final thoughts
A good leader uses all three styles, depending on what forces are involved
between the followers, the leader, and the situation. Some examples include:
 Using an authoritarian style on a new employee who is just learning the
job; the leader is competent and a good coach. The employee is motivated
to learn a new skill. The situation is a new environment for the employee.
 Using a participative style with a team of workers who know their job;
the leader knows the problem, but does not have all the information. The
employees know their jobs and want to become part of the team.
 Using a delegative style with a worker who knows more about the job
than you; you cannot do everything and the employee needs to take
ownership of her job! In addition, this allows you to be at other places,
doing other things.
 Using all three; telling your employees that a procedure is not working
correctly and a new one must be established (authoritarian), asking for
their ideas and input on creating a new procedure (participative), then
delegating tasks in order to implement the new procedure (delegative).