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Journal of Natural Sciences Research www.iiste.org
ISSN 2224-3186 (Paper) ISSN 2225-0921 (Online)
Vol.3, No.7, 2013
170
Microbiological Dynamics of Potable Water under Storage
Durations
Eze, V.C1*
., Emordi, R.2
,Nwaju, P.C2
.
1.Department of Microbiology, Michael Okpara University of Agriculture Umudike, P.M.B. 7267, Umuahia,
Abia State, Nigeria
2.Department of Microbiology, Madonna University Elele Campus, Rivers State, Nigeria
*E-mail of the corresponding author: mekus2020@gmail.com
Abstract
The microbiological dynamics of potable water under different storage durations was carried out. tap and sachet
water samples obtained from Elele were analyzed weekly for changes in total aerobic plate bacterial count,
coliform count, Escherichia coli count, Salmonella-Shigella count, Vibrio cholerae count and fungal count
during storage. Nutrient agar, MacConkey broth, eosin methylene blue agar, Salmonella-Shigella agar,
thiosulphate citrate bile salt sucrose agar and Sabouraud dextrose agar were respectively used for the
enumeration. The pour plate technique was employed and the statistical analyses used were analysis of variance
and standard deviation. The total aerobic plate bacterial count for the borehole and satchet water samples ranged
from 4.26 ± 0.4Log10cfu/mL to 4.78 ± 0.1Log10cfu/mL and 0 ± 0.00Log10cfu/mL to 4.53 ± 0.2Log10cfu/mL
respectively. The coliform count ranged from 9MPN/100mL to 240MPN/100mLand 0 ± 0.00MPN/100mL to
28MPN/100mL respectively. The Escherichia coli count ranged from 1.78 ± 0.5Log10cfu/mL to 3.59 ±
0.2Log10cfu/mL and 0 ± 0.00Log10cfu/mL respectively. The Salmonella-Shigella and Vibrio cholerae counts
were 0 ± 0.00Log10cfu/mL. The fungal count ranged from 0 ± 0.00Log10cfu/mL to 2.90 ± 1.0Log10cfu/mL and 0
± 0.00Log10cfu/mL. The bacteria isolated from the water samples were Escherichia coli, Enterobacter species,
Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella species and Bacillus species.
Drinking of potable tap water stored for over a period of time may pose threat to the consumers if sanitary
measures are not put in place during treatment of water.
Key words: Dynamics, durations, microbiological, potable, storage
1. Introduction
Drinking water or potable water is water of sufficiently high quality that can be consumed or used with low risk of
immediate or long term harm. In most developed countries, the water supplied to households, commerce and
industry is all of drinking water standard, although only a very small proportion is actually consumed or used in
food preparation. Humans in most parts of the world have inadequate access to potable water and use sources
contaminated with disease vectors, pathogens or unacceptable levels of toxins or suspended solids. Such water is
not potable and drinking or using such water in food preparation leads to widespread acute and chronic illnesses
and is a major cause of death and misery in many countries. Reduction of waterborne diseases is a major public
health goal in developing countries. Typical water supply networks deliver potable water from the tap, whether it
is to be used for drinking, washing or landscape irrigation (Jawas, Al-Ghazali, & Kharshid, 1988).
The potable water supply is important in the socio-economic life of communities. The source and potability
of water supply reflects on the health conditions of the communities as contamination of such water with
pathogens is the primary cause of disease outbreaks in such communities particularly in many developing
countries. The transmission of disease through drinking water is, therefore, one of the primary concerns for safe
water supply. The availability of potable water becomes a problem when supply is interrupted frequently and
shortages become the order of the day in many developing countries. Treated water from municipal distribution
system is the most popular source of water supply in most Nigerian communities, because of the belief that it has
passed through an efficient water purification system. Water from this source is also believed to have met the
recommended standards for potable water supply and therefore, considered to be the safest in terms of quality
control and prevention of water communicable diseases (Ahmed, Kanwal, Tahir, & Raul, 2004).
Government-managed water treatment plants constitute the main source of such treated water supply to both
urban and rural settlements. Due to some reasons the supply of potable water through public water from the main
municipal distribution network is very unstable and unpredictable as supplies are often erratic. In other situations,
the authorities saddled with responsibility of water supply are unable to meet up with the demand. Interruptions in
water supply could be for a short period or even last for months during which period people opt for alternative
sources of water from unconventional sources particularly streams and rivers (Ukhun, Tobi, & Okolie., 2005) to
meet their immediate needs. This trend makes people resort to storing treated water from the water treatment
plants. Elsewhere, situations such as earthquake, flooding and related natural disasters result in interruptions in
water supply which often lead to domestic water storage (Georgia, 1999).
Journal of Natural Sciences Research www.iiste.org
ISSN 2224-3186 (Paper) ISSN 2225-0921 (Online)
Vol.3, No.7, 2013
171
Water supply from the mains that is presumed safe is often stored in plastic tanks and other plastic
containers for several months without considerations for the possible implications of storage on the quality of
stored water. Studies have shown that water may become contaminated at any point between collection, storage
and usage (Tambekar, Hirulkar, Bhokre, Gulhane, & Bhanginwar, 2006a; 2006b). Also, storing water in containers
and handling procedures of water at home, hotels or restaurants cause water quality deterioration to such extent
that the water becomes potential risk of infection to consumers (Jagals, Bokaka, & Grabow, 1999).
The aim of this study is to investigate the effect of storage duration on the microbiological quality of
potable water supplied to a Nigerian community.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1 Collection of samples
Samples of borehole water and sachet water were collected from Elele, Rivers State, Nigeria. The Samples were
stored at room temperature in sterile screw capped plastic containers and in the rubber sachets. This was to
simulate storage of water as it is practised in many homes. At weekly interval, for up to 10 weeks, samples were
taken from the stored water for microbiological analyses. Duplicates of each water samples were examined.
2.2 Chemical Reagents
Chemical reagents used in the study were of analytical grade and were products of Hach Company, Colorado,
USA; BDH Chemicals, Poole’s, England and Sigma Chemical Company, St. Louis Missouri, USA. The
microbiological media used were products of Oxoid and Difco Laboratories England. They were nutrient agar
used for the estimation of total heterotrophic aerobic bacteria, purification and for stock culture; Sabouraud
dextrose agar used for the isolation of fungi, Salmonella-Shigella agar for the isolation of Salmonella and
Shigella, thiosulphate citrate bile sucrose agar for the isolation of Vibrio cholerae, eosin methylene blue agar for
the isolation of Escherichia coli and MacConkey broth for coliform counts.
2.3 Enumeration of Total Heterotrophic Bacteria and Fungi
Samples of the borehole and sachet water were serially diluted in ten folds. Total viable heterotrophic aerobic
bacterial counts were determined using pour plate technique. Then the molten nutrient agar, Sabouraud dextrose
agar, Salmonella-Shigella agar and thiosulphate citrate bile sucrose agar at 450
C were poured into the Petri
dishes containing 1mL of the appropriate dilution for the isolation of the total heterotrophic bacteria and fungi,
Salmonella-Shigella, Vibrio cholerae respectively. They were swirled to mix and colony counts were taken after
incubating the plates at 30o
C for 48h and preserved by sub culturing the bacterial isolates into nutrient agar slants
which were used for biochemical tests.
2.4 Enumeration of Coliforms
The coliforms were estimated using the Most Probable Number techniques (multiple tube fermentation technique)
as described by Cheesbrough, 2005.
2.5 Characterization and Identification of Bacterial and Fungal Isolates
Bacterial isolates were characterized and identified after studying the Gram reaction as well as cell micro
morphology. Other tests performed were spore formation, motility, oxidase and catalase production; citrate
utilization, oxidative/fermentation (O/F), utilization of glucose; indole and coagulase production, starch
hydrolysis, sugar fermentation, methyl red-Voges-Proskaur reaction and urease production. The tests were
performed according to the methods of Cheesbrough, 2005; Adeoye, 2007; Agwung-Fobellah & Kemajou, 2007;
Ochei & Kolhatkar, 2008. Microbial identification was performed using the keys provided in the Bergey’s
Manual of Determinative Bacteriology, 1994.
Fungal isolates were examined macroscopically and microscopically using the needle mouth technique.
Their identification was performed according to the scheme of Barnett & Hunter, 1972 and Larone, 1986.
3. Results
The results of the microbiological examination of potable (tap and sachet) water are recorded in Tables 1– 3.
Table 1 shows the mean count of microorganisms isolated from stored tap water. Total aerobic plate
counts ranged from 4.26 ± 0.4Log10cfu/mL to 4.78 ± Log10cfu/mL. The week10 had the highest of 4.78 ±
Log10cfu/mL and the week0 had the least count of 4.26 ± 0.4Log10cfu/mL. The Escherichia coli count ranged from
1.78 ± 0.5 Log10cfu/mL to 3.59 ± 0.2 Log10cfu/mL. The week4 had the highest count of 3.59 ± 0.2Log10cfu/mL
while week0 had the least count of 1.78 ± 0.5Log10cfu/mL. The coliform count ranged from 9 MPN/100mL to 240
MPN/100mL. The week5 recorded the highest cont of 240MPN/100mL and week10 recorded the least count of
9MPN/100mL. The fungal count ranged from 0 ± 0.00Log10cfu/mL to 2.90 ± 0.6Log10cfu/mL. The highest count
of 2.90 ± 0.6Log10cfu/mL was recorded in week10 while weeks 0, 1, 2 and 3 recorded the least count of 0 ±
0.00Log10cfu/mL. The ANOVA, P < 0.05 shows that there was a significant difference in the mean counts of total
aerobic plate bacterial count, Escherichia coli count, coliform count and fungal count in stored tap water at
different storage durations. The ANOVA, P > 0.05 showed that there was no significant difference in the mean
Journal of Natural Sciences Research www.iiste.org
ISSN 2224-3186 (Paper) ISSN 2225-0921 (Online)
Vol.3, No.7, 2013
172
counts of Vibrio cholerae count and Salmonella-Shigella count in the stored tap water at different storage
durations.
Table 2 shows the mean count of microorganisms isolated from stored sachet water. Total aerobic plate
counts ranged from 0 ± 0.00Log10cfu/mL to 4.53 ± 0.2Log10cfu/mL. The week10 had the highest count of 4.53 ±
0.2Log10cfu/mL while the weeks0, 1 had the least count of 0 ± 0.00Log10cfu/mL. The coliform count ranged from
0MPN/100mL to 28MPN/100mL. The highest count of 28MPN/100mL was recorded in the week10 while the
least count of 0MPN/100mL was recorded in weeks0-5. The ANOVA, P > 0.05 shows that there was significant
difference in the mean count of total aerobic plate bacterial count and coliform count in stored sachet water at
different storage durations. There Escherichia coli count, Salmonella-Shigella count and Vibrio cholerae count
had counts of 0 ± 0.00Log10cfu/mL respectively. The ANOVA, P > 0.05 showed that there was no significant
difference in the mean counts of Escherichia coli count, Salmonella-Shigella count and Vibrio cholerae count.
Table 3 shows the microorganisms isolated and their percentage occurrence. The organisms isolated were
Escherichia coli, Enterobacter species, Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella species and
Bacillus species. The Escherichia coli had the highest occurrence of 37.04% while Enterobacter species and
Klebsiella species had the least occurrence of 7.41% in the stored tap water. The Staphylococcus aureus had
highest occurrence of 66.67% and Escherichia coli, Enterobacter species, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and
Klebsiella species had the least occurrence of 0% in the stored sachet water.
4. Discussion
The bacterial species isolated from the water samples include Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus species,
Escherichia coli, Enterobacter species, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Klebsiella species. These bacteria have
been isolated from most community drinking water supplies in Nigeria and have been implicated in the
transmission of water-borne diseases in various parts of the country (Antai & Anozie, 1987; Onuh & Gonchi, 1998,
Inyang & Aderemi, 2001; Edema, Omemu, & Fapetu, 2001). The population of these microorganisms in stored
water increased progressively with storage until after the 7th week when their population began to decline. E. coli,
Staphylococcus aureus and Enterobacter species were bacteria that were frequently encountered particularly
within the first seven weeks of storage. E. coli was constantly encountered at all stages of storage.
The occurrence of Escherichia coli and Enterobacter species in freshly collected water samples is
indicative of faecal contamination which may be as a result of seepage into the broken pipes and also an indication
of inadequate treatment of post-chlorination system. This implies that water entering the distribution system was
not entirely devoid of coliforms. The United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA, 2005)
recommends zero contamination level of coliforms in drinking water. The occurrence of coliforms in freshly
treated water may be due to unhygienic conditions. Clark et al., 1982 reported that coliforms could be found in
both chlorinated and unchlorinated water as the complete elimination of coliforms in water requires knowledge of
their population in such water to determine the quantity of chlorine that would be required for complete
elimination. The observed count on freshly treated water samples, therefore, put to question the effectiveness of
the water treatment procedures for water supplied in the area under study. Many treatment plants designed and
installed in many third world countries have inherent operational problems (Ogedengbe, 1982). Some are very old
and are never frequently maintained. The implication of this is that treated water obtained from taps and
distribution points within the treatment plant premises are not potable as they are not entirely devoid of coliforms.
Staphylococcus aureus, which is a normal flora of the body, indicates contamination from handlers especially
those fetching water from the taps. This organism when ingested can cause diarrhea and vomiting due to
enterotoxin produced by it (Singleton, 1995; Frazier & Westhoff, 2004; Eze, Okoye, Agwung, & Nnabueke, 2008).
The higher load of this organism in the tap water than in the sachet water samples may be as a result of handling of
the taps and washing of hands or other parts of the body on the taps by individuals who may carry it on their
bodies as normal flora thereby leaving the organism on the surfaces of the taps.
Bacillus species are Gram positive aerobic spore-formers and most members of the genus are saprophytic
prevalent in the soil, water and air and on vegetation (Books, Butel, & Morse, 2004).
It has been observed that sterile water devoid of microorganisms rarely exists except in the laboratory (Ogbulie
& Akujiobi, 2006). The population of coliforms decreased with storage time, while the total bacterial count in the
stored water samples increased. This may be as a result of accumulation of debris from long storage which may
encourage microbial growth.
This study has shown that there is a need for an improvement in water treatment procedures. There is also the
need for awareness programmes to be put in place to educate communities on the possible health implications of
drinking water which has been stored for a long time.
Journal of Natural Sciences Research www.iiste.org
ISSN 2224-3186 (Paper) ISSN 2225-0921 (Online)
Vol.3, No.7, 2013
173
Conclusion
It has shown that storing potable water for a long period increases the microbial load. Therefore consumers of
potable water stored over a period of time should take precautions either by boiling, filtration or other methods
of treatment of water to avoid being contaminated by microorganisms that may be pathogenic to humans
resulting from such storage durations.
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Journal of Natural Sciences Research www.iiste.org
ISSN 2224-3186 (Paper) ISSN 2225-0921 (Online)
Vol.3, No.7, 2013
174
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Table 1: The Mean counts of microorganisms isolated from stored tap water.
Log10cfu/mL MPN/100mL
Storage
(weeks)
TAPC EC VC SSC FC CC
0 4.26 ± 0.4 1.78 ± 0.5 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 20
1 4.30 ± 0.4 3.04 ± 1.0 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 75
2 4.41 ± 0.3 3.38 ± 0.5 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 120
3 4.51 ± 0.1 3.57 ± 0.2 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 150
4 4.57 ± 0.4 3.59 ± 0.1 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 2.00 ± 0.5 210
5 4.62 ± 0.4 3.40± 0.2 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 2.30 ± 0.5 240
6 4.69 ± 0.1 3.40 ± 0.4 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 2.60 ± 0.9 93
7 4.72 ± 0.4 3.30 ± 0.2 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 2.60 ± 0.5 39
8 4.72 ± 0.3 1.95 ± 0.2 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 2.70 ± 0.9 23
9 4.77 ± 0.2 1.85 ± 0.3 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 2.78 ± 1.0 15
10 4.78 ± 0.1 1.90 ± 0.4 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 2.90 ± 0.6 9
Legend: TAPC = total aerobic plate count; EC = Escherichia coli count; VC = Vibrio count; SSC = Salmonella-
Shigella count; CC = Coliform count; FC = Fungal count
Table 2: The Mean counts of microorganisms isolated from stored sachet water.
Log10cfu/mL MPN/100mL
Storage
(weeks)
TAPC EC VC SSC FC CC
0 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 0
1 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 0
2 2.48 ± 0.3 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 0
3 2.70 ± 0.1 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 0
4 2.95 ± 0.4 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 0
5 4.23 ± 0.4 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 0
6 4.34 ± 0.5 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 0
7 4.36 ± 0.4 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 9
8 4.42 ± 0.1 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 15
9 4.51 ± 0.5 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 21
10 4.53 ± 0.2 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 28
Legend: TAPC = total aerobic plate count; EC = Escherichia coli count; VC = Vibrio count; SSC = Salmonella-
Shigella count; CC = Coliform count; FC = Fungal count
Table 3: Microorganisms isolated and their Percentage Occurrence
Bacteria Tap water (%) Sachet water (%) Total (%) occurrence
Escherichia coli 10(37.04) 0(0.00) 13(33.33)
Staphylococcus aureus 5(18.52) 2(66.67) 7(23.33)
Bacillus species 5(18.52) 1(33.33) 6(20.00)
Klebsiella species 2(7.41) 0(0.00) 2(6.67)
Pseudomonas aeruginosa 3(11.11) 0(0.00) 3(10.00)
Enterobacter species
Fungi
Aspergillus species
Rhizopus species
Saccharomyces species
2(7.41)
1(14.29)
4(57.14)
2(28.57)
0(0.00)
0(0.00)
0(0.00)
0(0.00)
2(6.67)
1(14.29)
4(57.14)
2(28.57)
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Microbiological dynamics of potable water under storage durations

  • 1. Journal of Natural Sciences Research www.iiste.org ISSN 2224-3186 (Paper) ISSN 2225-0921 (Online) Vol.3, No.7, 2013 170 Microbiological Dynamics of Potable Water under Storage Durations Eze, V.C1* ., Emordi, R.2 ,Nwaju, P.C2 . 1.Department of Microbiology, Michael Okpara University of Agriculture Umudike, P.M.B. 7267, Umuahia, Abia State, Nigeria 2.Department of Microbiology, Madonna University Elele Campus, Rivers State, Nigeria *E-mail of the corresponding author: mekus2020@gmail.com Abstract The microbiological dynamics of potable water under different storage durations was carried out. tap and sachet water samples obtained from Elele were analyzed weekly for changes in total aerobic plate bacterial count, coliform count, Escherichia coli count, Salmonella-Shigella count, Vibrio cholerae count and fungal count during storage. Nutrient agar, MacConkey broth, eosin methylene blue agar, Salmonella-Shigella agar, thiosulphate citrate bile salt sucrose agar and Sabouraud dextrose agar were respectively used for the enumeration. The pour plate technique was employed and the statistical analyses used were analysis of variance and standard deviation. The total aerobic plate bacterial count for the borehole and satchet water samples ranged from 4.26 ± 0.4Log10cfu/mL to 4.78 ± 0.1Log10cfu/mL and 0 ± 0.00Log10cfu/mL to 4.53 ± 0.2Log10cfu/mL respectively. The coliform count ranged from 9MPN/100mL to 240MPN/100mLand 0 ± 0.00MPN/100mL to 28MPN/100mL respectively. The Escherichia coli count ranged from 1.78 ± 0.5Log10cfu/mL to 3.59 ± 0.2Log10cfu/mL and 0 ± 0.00Log10cfu/mL respectively. The Salmonella-Shigella and Vibrio cholerae counts were 0 ± 0.00Log10cfu/mL. The fungal count ranged from 0 ± 0.00Log10cfu/mL to 2.90 ± 1.0Log10cfu/mL and 0 ± 0.00Log10cfu/mL. The bacteria isolated from the water samples were Escherichia coli, Enterobacter species, Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella species and Bacillus species. Drinking of potable tap water stored for over a period of time may pose threat to the consumers if sanitary measures are not put in place during treatment of water. Key words: Dynamics, durations, microbiological, potable, storage 1. Introduction Drinking water or potable water is water of sufficiently high quality that can be consumed or used with low risk of immediate or long term harm. In most developed countries, the water supplied to households, commerce and industry is all of drinking water standard, although only a very small proportion is actually consumed or used in food preparation. Humans in most parts of the world have inadequate access to potable water and use sources contaminated with disease vectors, pathogens or unacceptable levels of toxins or suspended solids. Such water is not potable and drinking or using such water in food preparation leads to widespread acute and chronic illnesses and is a major cause of death and misery in many countries. Reduction of waterborne diseases is a major public health goal in developing countries. Typical water supply networks deliver potable water from the tap, whether it is to be used for drinking, washing or landscape irrigation (Jawas, Al-Ghazali, & Kharshid, 1988). The potable water supply is important in the socio-economic life of communities. The source and potability of water supply reflects on the health conditions of the communities as contamination of such water with pathogens is the primary cause of disease outbreaks in such communities particularly in many developing countries. The transmission of disease through drinking water is, therefore, one of the primary concerns for safe water supply. The availability of potable water becomes a problem when supply is interrupted frequently and shortages become the order of the day in many developing countries. Treated water from municipal distribution system is the most popular source of water supply in most Nigerian communities, because of the belief that it has passed through an efficient water purification system. Water from this source is also believed to have met the recommended standards for potable water supply and therefore, considered to be the safest in terms of quality control and prevention of water communicable diseases (Ahmed, Kanwal, Tahir, & Raul, 2004). Government-managed water treatment plants constitute the main source of such treated water supply to both urban and rural settlements. Due to some reasons the supply of potable water through public water from the main municipal distribution network is very unstable and unpredictable as supplies are often erratic. In other situations, the authorities saddled with responsibility of water supply are unable to meet up with the demand. Interruptions in water supply could be for a short period or even last for months during which period people opt for alternative sources of water from unconventional sources particularly streams and rivers (Ukhun, Tobi, & Okolie., 2005) to meet their immediate needs. This trend makes people resort to storing treated water from the water treatment plants. Elsewhere, situations such as earthquake, flooding and related natural disasters result in interruptions in water supply which often lead to domestic water storage (Georgia, 1999).
  • 2. Journal of Natural Sciences Research www.iiste.org ISSN 2224-3186 (Paper) ISSN 2225-0921 (Online) Vol.3, No.7, 2013 171 Water supply from the mains that is presumed safe is often stored in plastic tanks and other plastic containers for several months without considerations for the possible implications of storage on the quality of stored water. Studies have shown that water may become contaminated at any point between collection, storage and usage (Tambekar, Hirulkar, Bhokre, Gulhane, & Bhanginwar, 2006a; 2006b). Also, storing water in containers and handling procedures of water at home, hotels or restaurants cause water quality deterioration to such extent that the water becomes potential risk of infection to consumers (Jagals, Bokaka, & Grabow, 1999). The aim of this study is to investigate the effect of storage duration on the microbiological quality of potable water supplied to a Nigerian community. 2. Materials and Methods 2.1 Collection of samples Samples of borehole water and sachet water were collected from Elele, Rivers State, Nigeria. The Samples were stored at room temperature in sterile screw capped plastic containers and in the rubber sachets. This was to simulate storage of water as it is practised in many homes. At weekly interval, for up to 10 weeks, samples were taken from the stored water for microbiological analyses. Duplicates of each water samples were examined. 2.2 Chemical Reagents Chemical reagents used in the study were of analytical grade and were products of Hach Company, Colorado, USA; BDH Chemicals, Poole’s, England and Sigma Chemical Company, St. Louis Missouri, USA. The microbiological media used were products of Oxoid and Difco Laboratories England. They were nutrient agar used for the estimation of total heterotrophic aerobic bacteria, purification and for stock culture; Sabouraud dextrose agar used for the isolation of fungi, Salmonella-Shigella agar for the isolation of Salmonella and Shigella, thiosulphate citrate bile sucrose agar for the isolation of Vibrio cholerae, eosin methylene blue agar for the isolation of Escherichia coli and MacConkey broth for coliform counts. 2.3 Enumeration of Total Heterotrophic Bacteria and Fungi Samples of the borehole and sachet water were serially diluted in ten folds. Total viable heterotrophic aerobic bacterial counts were determined using pour plate technique. Then the molten nutrient agar, Sabouraud dextrose agar, Salmonella-Shigella agar and thiosulphate citrate bile sucrose agar at 450 C were poured into the Petri dishes containing 1mL of the appropriate dilution for the isolation of the total heterotrophic bacteria and fungi, Salmonella-Shigella, Vibrio cholerae respectively. They were swirled to mix and colony counts were taken after incubating the plates at 30o C for 48h and preserved by sub culturing the bacterial isolates into nutrient agar slants which were used for biochemical tests. 2.4 Enumeration of Coliforms The coliforms were estimated using the Most Probable Number techniques (multiple tube fermentation technique) as described by Cheesbrough, 2005. 2.5 Characterization and Identification of Bacterial and Fungal Isolates Bacterial isolates were characterized and identified after studying the Gram reaction as well as cell micro morphology. Other tests performed were spore formation, motility, oxidase and catalase production; citrate utilization, oxidative/fermentation (O/F), utilization of glucose; indole and coagulase production, starch hydrolysis, sugar fermentation, methyl red-Voges-Proskaur reaction and urease production. The tests were performed according to the methods of Cheesbrough, 2005; Adeoye, 2007; Agwung-Fobellah & Kemajou, 2007; Ochei & Kolhatkar, 2008. Microbial identification was performed using the keys provided in the Bergey’s Manual of Determinative Bacteriology, 1994. Fungal isolates were examined macroscopically and microscopically using the needle mouth technique. Their identification was performed according to the scheme of Barnett & Hunter, 1972 and Larone, 1986. 3. Results The results of the microbiological examination of potable (tap and sachet) water are recorded in Tables 1– 3. Table 1 shows the mean count of microorganisms isolated from stored tap water. Total aerobic plate counts ranged from 4.26 ± 0.4Log10cfu/mL to 4.78 ± Log10cfu/mL. The week10 had the highest of 4.78 ± Log10cfu/mL and the week0 had the least count of 4.26 ± 0.4Log10cfu/mL. The Escherichia coli count ranged from 1.78 ± 0.5 Log10cfu/mL to 3.59 ± 0.2 Log10cfu/mL. The week4 had the highest count of 3.59 ± 0.2Log10cfu/mL while week0 had the least count of 1.78 ± 0.5Log10cfu/mL. The coliform count ranged from 9 MPN/100mL to 240 MPN/100mL. The week5 recorded the highest cont of 240MPN/100mL and week10 recorded the least count of 9MPN/100mL. The fungal count ranged from 0 ± 0.00Log10cfu/mL to 2.90 ± 0.6Log10cfu/mL. The highest count of 2.90 ± 0.6Log10cfu/mL was recorded in week10 while weeks 0, 1, 2 and 3 recorded the least count of 0 ± 0.00Log10cfu/mL. The ANOVA, P < 0.05 shows that there was a significant difference in the mean counts of total aerobic plate bacterial count, Escherichia coli count, coliform count and fungal count in stored tap water at different storage durations. The ANOVA, P > 0.05 showed that there was no significant difference in the mean
  • 3. Journal of Natural Sciences Research www.iiste.org ISSN 2224-3186 (Paper) ISSN 2225-0921 (Online) Vol.3, No.7, 2013 172 counts of Vibrio cholerae count and Salmonella-Shigella count in the stored tap water at different storage durations. Table 2 shows the mean count of microorganisms isolated from stored sachet water. Total aerobic plate counts ranged from 0 ± 0.00Log10cfu/mL to 4.53 ± 0.2Log10cfu/mL. The week10 had the highest count of 4.53 ± 0.2Log10cfu/mL while the weeks0, 1 had the least count of 0 ± 0.00Log10cfu/mL. The coliform count ranged from 0MPN/100mL to 28MPN/100mL. The highest count of 28MPN/100mL was recorded in the week10 while the least count of 0MPN/100mL was recorded in weeks0-5. The ANOVA, P > 0.05 shows that there was significant difference in the mean count of total aerobic plate bacterial count and coliform count in stored sachet water at different storage durations. There Escherichia coli count, Salmonella-Shigella count and Vibrio cholerae count had counts of 0 ± 0.00Log10cfu/mL respectively. The ANOVA, P > 0.05 showed that there was no significant difference in the mean counts of Escherichia coli count, Salmonella-Shigella count and Vibrio cholerae count. Table 3 shows the microorganisms isolated and their percentage occurrence. The organisms isolated were Escherichia coli, Enterobacter species, Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella species and Bacillus species. The Escherichia coli had the highest occurrence of 37.04% while Enterobacter species and Klebsiella species had the least occurrence of 7.41% in the stored tap water. The Staphylococcus aureus had highest occurrence of 66.67% and Escherichia coli, Enterobacter species, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Klebsiella species had the least occurrence of 0% in the stored sachet water. 4. Discussion The bacterial species isolated from the water samples include Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus species, Escherichia coli, Enterobacter species, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Klebsiella species. These bacteria have been isolated from most community drinking water supplies in Nigeria and have been implicated in the transmission of water-borne diseases in various parts of the country (Antai & Anozie, 1987; Onuh & Gonchi, 1998, Inyang & Aderemi, 2001; Edema, Omemu, & Fapetu, 2001). The population of these microorganisms in stored water increased progressively with storage until after the 7th week when their population began to decline. E. coli, Staphylococcus aureus and Enterobacter species were bacteria that were frequently encountered particularly within the first seven weeks of storage. E. coli was constantly encountered at all stages of storage. The occurrence of Escherichia coli and Enterobacter species in freshly collected water samples is indicative of faecal contamination which may be as a result of seepage into the broken pipes and also an indication of inadequate treatment of post-chlorination system. This implies that water entering the distribution system was not entirely devoid of coliforms. The United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA, 2005) recommends zero contamination level of coliforms in drinking water. The occurrence of coliforms in freshly treated water may be due to unhygienic conditions. Clark et al., 1982 reported that coliforms could be found in both chlorinated and unchlorinated water as the complete elimination of coliforms in water requires knowledge of their population in such water to determine the quantity of chlorine that would be required for complete elimination. The observed count on freshly treated water samples, therefore, put to question the effectiveness of the water treatment procedures for water supplied in the area under study. Many treatment plants designed and installed in many third world countries have inherent operational problems (Ogedengbe, 1982). Some are very old and are never frequently maintained. The implication of this is that treated water obtained from taps and distribution points within the treatment plant premises are not potable as they are not entirely devoid of coliforms. Staphylococcus aureus, which is a normal flora of the body, indicates contamination from handlers especially those fetching water from the taps. This organism when ingested can cause diarrhea and vomiting due to enterotoxin produced by it (Singleton, 1995; Frazier & Westhoff, 2004; Eze, Okoye, Agwung, & Nnabueke, 2008). The higher load of this organism in the tap water than in the sachet water samples may be as a result of handling of the taps and washing of hands or other parts of the body on the taps by individuals who may carry it on their bodies as normal flora thereby leaving the organism on the surfaces of the taps. Bacillus species are Gram positive aerobic spore-formers and most members of the genus are saprophytic prevalent in the soil, water and air and on vegetation (Books, Butel, & Morse, 2004). It has been observed that sterile water devoid of microorganisms rarely exists except in the laboratory (Ogbulie & Akujiobi, 2006). The population of coliforms decreased with storage time, while the total bacterial count in the stored water samples increased. This may be as a result of accumulation of debris from long storage which may encourage microbial growth. This study has shown that there is a need for an improvement in water treatment procedures. There is also the need for awareness programmes to be put in place to educate communities on the possible health implications of drinking water which has been stored for a long time.
  • 4. Journal of Natural Sciences Research www.iiste.org ISSN 2224-3186 (Paper) ISSN 2225-0921 (Online) Vol.3, No.7, 2013 173 Conclusion It has shown that storing potable water for a long period increases the microbial load. Therefore consumers of potable water stored over a period of time should take precautions either by boiling, filtration or other methods of treatment of water to avoid being contaminated by microorganisms that may be pathogenic to humans resulting from such storage durations. References Adeoye, A. (2007). Medical Laboratory Practice. (1st ed.). FEMCO Publishers Limited, Lagos, Nigeria, p.153 Agbabiaka, T.O. & I.O. Sule, (2010). Bacteriological assessment of selected borehole water samples in Ilorin metropolis. International Journal of Applied Biological Research, 2(2):31 – 37. Agwung-Fobellah, D. & Kemajou, S.T. (2007). Laboratory Microbiology and Activity Manual, Ark of Wisdom Publishers, Aba, Nigeria, 12 – 37 pp. Ahmed, T., Kanwal, R., Tahir, S. S., & Rauf, N. (2004). Bacteriological analysis of water collected from different dams of Rawalpindi / Islamabad region in Pakistan. Pakistan Journal of Biological Sciences, 7, 662- 666. Antai, S. P., & Anozie, S. O. (1987). Incidence of infertile enteropathogenic Escherichia coli in Port Harcourt metropolis. Journal of Applied Microbiology, 62, 227-229. Barnett, H.L. & Hunter, B.B. (1972). Illustrated genera of imperfecti fungi, (3rd ed.) Burgess Publishing Company, Minnesota, U.S.A. Bergey’s Manual of Determinative Bacteriology. (1994). 9th ed. Holt, J.D. (Ed.), Williams Wilkins CO. Baltimore, 783p. Brooks, G.F., Butel, S.J. & Morse, S.A. (2004). Medical Microbiology. (23rd ed). The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Singapore. Cheesbrough, M. (2005). District laboratory practice in tropical countries. (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. 30 – 41pp Clark, J. A., Burger, G. A., & Sataions, L. E. (1982). Characterisation of indicator bacteria in municipal raw water, drinking water and new main suppliers. Journal of General Microbiology, 55, 1002-1013. Edema, M. O., Omemu, A. M., & Fapetu, O. M. (2001). Microbiology and physico-chemical analysis of drinking water in Abeokuta, Nigeria. Nigerian Journal of Microbiology, 15, 57-61. Eze, V.C., Okoye, J.I., Agwung, F.D. & Nnabueke C. (2008). Chemical and microbiological evaluation of soybean flours bought from local markets in Onitsha, Anambra State, Nigeria. Eze, V.C. & Okpokwasili, G.C. (2008). Microbial and Heavy Metal Characteristics of a Niger Delta River receiving Industrial Effluents, Tropical Journal Biomedical and Allied Science Research, 3, 238 – 249. Frazier, W.C. & Westhoff, D.C. (2004). Food Microbiology. (4th ed.) McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 218 - 219 pp. Georgia, L. (1999). Water Storage Food Science Specialist. Utah State University. 1-3pp. Inyang, C. U., & Aderemi, A. D. (2001). Bacteriological assessment of drinking water in Makurdi, Nigeria. Journal of Agriculture, Science and Technology, 13, 136-140. Jagals, P., Bokaka, T. C., & Grabow, W. O. K. (1999). Changing consumer water patterns and their effect on microbiological water quality as a result of an engineering intervention. Water South Africa, 25, 297- 300. Jawas, M., Al-Ghazali, M. R., & Kharshid, M. S. H. (1988). The effect of domestic storage tanks on the quality of drinking waters. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 11, 79-87. Larone, B.H. (1986). Important Fungi: A Guide to Identification, Harper and Row Publishers, Hagerstown, Maryland, 7- 26 pp. Ogbulie, T.E. & Akujiobi, T.C. (2006). Bacteriological quality of some bottled waters sold in Imo State, Nigeria. International Journal of Natural and Applied Science, 2(2), 122 –128. Ochei, J.O. & Kolhatkar, A.A. (2008). Medical Laboratory Science: Theory and Practice. Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited, New York, 637- 745 pp. Ogedengbe, O. (1982). Some design pitfalls in water treatment plants in Nigeria, Nigerian Journal of Science. 16: 334-342. Okafor, N. (1999). Aquatic and Water Microbiology. 4th ed. Fourth Dimension Publishing Co. Ltd.,Enugu, 169 p. Onuh, C. A., & Gonchi, L. C. (1998). The incidence of enterobactericeae in drinking water from Mangu Local Government area, Plateau State, Nigeria. African Journal of Natural Sciences. 2, 115-119. Tambekar, D. H., Hirulka, N. B., Banginwar, Y. S., Ranjankar, P. N. & Deshmukh, S. S. (2006). Water hygiene behaviours in Hotels and Restaurants and their effects on bacteriological quality, Biotechnology, 5, 475- 477. Singleton, P. (1995). Bacteria in Biology, Biotechnology and Medicine. (4th ed.) John Wiley and Sons Ltd., New York, 232 – 266 pp.
  • 5. Journal of Natural Sciences Research www.iiste.org ISSN 2224-3186 (Paper) ISSN 2225-0921 (Online) Vol.3, No.7, 2013 174 Tambekar, D. H., Hirulkar, N. B., Bhokre, D. D., Gulhane, S. R., & Bhanginwar.Y.S. (2006). Studies of hygiene behaviour on bacteriological quality deterioration of water in hotels and restaurants, Research Journal of Microbiology, 1: 183-189 Ukhun, M. E., Tobi, J. R., and Okolie, N.P. (2005). Toxic chemicals and microbes in some Nigerian water samples. Journal of Medical Sciences, 5, 260-265. USEPA (2005). List of drinking water contaminants and their maximum contaminant levels. United States Environmental Protection Guidelines. Table 1: The Mean counts of microorganisms isolated from stored tap water. Log10cfu/mL MPN/100mL Storage (weeks) TAPC EC VC SSC FC CC 0 4.26 ± 0.4 1.78 ± 0.5 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 20 1 4.30 ± 0.4 3.04 ± 1.0 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 75 2 4.41 ± 0.3 3.38 ± 0.5 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 120 3 4.51 ± 0.1 3.57 ± 0.2 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 150 4 4.57 ± 0.4 3.59 ± 0.1 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 2.00 ± 0.5 210 5 4.62 ± 0.4 3.40± 0.2 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 2.30 ± 0.5 240 6 4.69 ± 0.1 3.40 ± 0.4 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 2.60 ± 0.9 93 7 4.72 ± 0.4 3.30 ± 0.2 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 2.60 ± 0.5 39 8 4.72 ± 0.3 1.95 ± 0.2 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 2.70 ± 0.9 23 9 4.77 ± 0.2 1.85 ± 0.3 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 2.78 ± 1.0 15 10 4.78 ± 0.1 1.90 ± 0.4 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 2.90 ± 0.6 9 Legend: TAPC = total aerobic plate count; EC = Escherichia coli count; VC = Vibrio count; SSC = Salmonella- Shigella count; CC = Coliform count; FC = Fungal count Table 2: The Mean counts of microorganisms isolated from stored sachet water. Log10cfu/mL MPN/100mL Storage (weeks) TAPC EC VC SSC FC CC 0 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 0 1 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 0 2 2.48 ± 0.3 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 0 3 2.70 ± 0.1 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 0 4 2.95 ± 0.4 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 0 5 4.23 ± 0.4 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 0 6 4.34 ± 0.5 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 0 7 4.36 ± 0.4 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 9 8 4.42 ± 0.1 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 15 9 4.51 ± 0.5 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 21 10 4.53 ± 0.2 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 28 Legend: TAPC = total aerobic plate count; EC = Escherichia coli count; VC = Vibrio count; SSC = Salmonella- Shigella count; CC = Coliform count; FC = Fungal count Table 3: Microorganisms isolated and their Percentage Occurrence Bacteria Tap water (%) Sachet water (%) Total (%) occurrence Escherichia coli 10(37.04) 0(0.00) 13(33.33) Staphylococcus aureus 5(18.52) 2(66.67) 7(23.33) Bacillus species 5(18.52) 1(33.33) 6(20.00) Klebsiella species 2(7.41) 0(0.00) 2(6.67) Pseudomonas aeruginosa 3(11.11) 0(0.00) 3(10.00) Enterobacter species Fungi Aspergillus species Rhizopus species Saccharomyces species 2(7.41) 1(14.29) 4(57.14) 2(28.57) 0(0.00) 0(0.00) 0(0.00) 0(0.00) 2(6.67) 1(14.29) 4(57.14) 2(28.57)
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