SlideShare ist ein Scribd-Unternehmen logo
1 von 8
Downloaden Sie, um offline zu lesen
Journal of Biology, Agriculture and Healthcare www.iiste.org
ISSN 2224-3208 (Paper) ISSN 2225-093X (Online)
Vol.3, No.11, 2013
12
Farmers’ Perception of the Impact of Land Degradation and Soil
and Water Conservation Measures in West Harerghe Zone of
Oromia National Regional State, Ethiopia.
Yenealem Kassa*1
, Fekadu Beyene1
, Jema Haji2
, Belaineh Legesse2
1. Department of Rural Development and Agricultural Extension, Haramaya University, P.O. box 138,
Dire Dawa, Ethiopia.
2. Department of Agricultural Economics, Haramaya University, P.O. box 138, Dire Dawa, Ethiopia.
* Email of the corresponding author: yenealemkassa@yahoo.co.uk
Abstract
This study was conducted to assess the farmers’ perception of the impact of land degradation and its’
conservation measures on crop productivity and income in West Harerghe Zone of Oromia National Regional
State, Ethiopia. The study was based on the data obtained from 398 sample households using pre-tested
structured interview schedule. The data were analyzed using simple descriptive statistics with the appropriate
statistical tests. The result of the analysis revealed that out of the total sampled households, 82.7 percent were
perceptive about the problem of soil erosion and majority of these households (54.5 percent) perceived erosion
on their land as severe. The perceived fertility decline on their farm was, 28.1 percent less severe, 57.9 percent
sever and 13.9 percent very severe. More than 55 percent of sampled respondents also believe that the impact of
land degradation on yield/productivity decline of their lands was severe. Likewise, majority (98.9 percent) of the
total households were perceptive about the impact of soil and water conservation in improving soil fertility and
yield/production. However, significant proportion farmers who perceived the impact of land degradation and the
conservation measures on crop productivity and income were using traditional measures. Therefore, to
encourage adoption of improved conservation measures extension, institutional support programs and projects
which promote soil and water conservation technologies should have strategies which focus on enhancing the
willingness of farm households.
Keywords: Land degradation, soil and water conservation, perception, Ethiopia
1. Introduction
Land degradation due to soil erosion and nutrient depletion is considered as one of the main problems
constraining the development of the agricultural sector in Ethiopia (Kirubel and Gebreyesus, 2011). Land
degradation is manifested mainly in the form of land where the soil layer has been eroded away and nutrients
have been continuously extracted with little or no any replenishment. The problem is particularly severe on
cultivated marginal and sloping land because such areas are generally susceptible to soil erosion (Million and
Belay, 2004). This has significantly contributed to the hunger faced by some five to seven million people in the
country, thereby requiring external assistance every year for their survival and more than 45 percent of the total
population to toil below the absolute poverty line (Gete et al., 2006).
Given the continued degradation of natural resource and the very high population growth rate, the opportunity to
increase production through area expansion is very limited in the country. The greatest potential for increasing
agricultural productivity is likely to come from improved land management practices and efficient application of
improved agricultural inputs (Kidane, 2001; Assefa, 2009). In pursuit of this, Ethiopia has been in continuous
struggle to increase agricultural production through sustainable use of natural resources during the last four
decades (Bekele et al., 2009). However, farmers may practice different conservation measures depending on
their degree of perception of the problem of land degradation and awareness of the conservation measures
available around them (Shiferaw and Bantilan, 2004). Thus, understanding farmers’ perception of the impacts of
land degradation and the conservation measures help to provide specific policy recommendations for designing
appropriate conservation strategies of land management. Therefore, this study aims to assess farmers’ perception
on problem of land degradation (i.e., soil erosion and decline in soil fertility) and its’ conservation measures on
crop productivity and household income in West Harerghe Zone of Oromia National Regional State.
2. Research Methodology
2.1. Description of the Study Area
West Harerge Zone is one of the 17 Zones in Oromia National Regional State, geographically located between
70 32’ - 90 47’N latitude and 410 24’ - 430 48’E longitudes (between 70 52’ 15’’ - 9028’43’’ North latitude and
400 03’ 33’’ - 40034’13’’ East longitudes. The capital town of the Zone is Chiro, which is located at a distance
of 326 km East of Addis Ababa. The area coverage of the Zone is 1,723,145ha (17,231km2), comprising of 14
Journal of Biology, Agriculture and Healthcare www.iiste.org
ISSN 2224-3208 (Paper) ISSN 2225-093X (Online)
Vol.3, No.11, 2013
13
districts with a combined population of 1,871,706, of whom 912,845 are women. While 160,895 or 9.36% are
urban inhabitants, a further 10,567 or 0.56% are pastoralists (ZBOFED, 2012). West Harerghe is subdivided in
to three major climatic zones known to be Temperate tropical highland locally known as dega (12.49%), Semi-
temperate/Tropical rainy mid land or woinadega (38%), and Semi-arid/Tropical dry or kola (49.5%). The
topography of the zone is characterized by steep slopes in the highlands and mid-highlands and large plains in
the lowland areas. The ecological zones are set based on the differences in altitude variation ranging between
500 up to 3500 meters above sea level kola (500 - 1500 m a.s.l), woinadega (1500 - 2300 m a.s.l) and dega
(2300 - 3500 m a.s.l). The mean monthly minimum temperature ranging from 160
C to 200
C, while the mean
maximum is 240
C to 280
C. Rainfall is dispersed throughout the year into two rainy seasons belg rains falling in
February-April and meher or main season rains fall from June-September with small showers in dry months.
Annual rainfall averages range from below 700 mm for the lower kolla to nearly 1,200 mm for the higher
elevations of woinadega and dega areas. The rainfall is variable from year to year both in terms of intensity and
distribution during the growing seasons causing a wide range of climatic hazards (PEDBRSO, 2010).
2.2. ampling Procedure
Multi-stage stratified random sampling technique was followed to select PAs and households proportionally for
the study. Considering the objective of the study and representativeness of the sample, 18 kebeles were selected
from three randomly drawn Districts (Messela, Oda Bultum and Daro Lebu). As sever degradation and huge
investment in its’ conservation measures were undertaken in high-and mid-altitude areas, the selected kebeles are
found in the two agro-climatic zones. To give equal chance in selection of the study units from each concerned
woredas, probability proportional to size (PPS) was applied. Again PPS was used to draw sampling units
proportionally from each kebele administration of the three woredas. Consequently, the total sample size, 398
households were randomly drawn from the eighteen kebeles using simple random sampling procedure via
sampling frame.
2.3. Data Analysis
Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics. Mean and proportion comparison methods (independent sample
t-test and χ2
test), respectively were used to test whether there is significant difference between adopters and
non-adopters in terms of the selected variables.
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Demographic and socio-economic characteristics of the respondents
Of the total sampled households, only 23 (5.8 percent) were female headed. The mean age of the sample
household heads was 43.27 with the minimum and maximum ages of 21 and 75 years. Significant proportions
(50.5 percent) of the household heads were not able to read and write, while 11 percent could read and write but
were without formal education. However, 31.3 percent of the respondents had primary school education or have
joined the former illiteracy campaign; while 6.3 percent had secondary school education. The mean family size
of the total sample respondents was 7.03 persons ranging from 1 to 17, which is higher than the national average
of 5 persons (CSA, 2007). This implies that, the farmers had a large family size in the area, which could reduce
the demand for hired labour as members of the farm families could carry out some of the farming and non
farming activities.
The average farm size of the sample households was found to be 0.98 hectares ranging between 0.06 and 3.45
hectares. This shows that they are small scale farmers, which is a typical feature of rural farmers in Ethiopia. Of
the total land size, about 0.73 hectare on average was cultivated and covered with annual and perennial crops.
This figure is by far below the national average of 1.53 ha (CSA, 2007). The total livestock holding measured in
terms of TLU was found to be 2.09. This is relatively large number in this crop-livestock mixed farming system
where land holdings are very small and grazing areas are continuously converted into crop land. According to
the information obtained from focus group discussions, because of serious shortage of land, most of the farmers
are using zero grazing and the productive and reproductive performance of animals has been declining due to
shortage of feed resources, particularly in dry seasons. The average numbers of oxen owned were 0.9. This
indicates farmers on average have less than a pair of oxen required for farm operation.
Sales of crops, livestock, and off-farm activities are important sources of cash income in the study areas.
However, sales of crops constitute 84.82 percent and 83.01 percent of the total income for adopters and non-
adopters, respectively. In 2011/2012 production season, the net crop and livestock income of the adopters was
birr 17984.62 and birr 1418.91, while that of the non-adopters was birr 13077.64, and birr 765.39, respectively.
3.2. Major soil and water conservation measures in the study area
As in the other parts of the country, in the study area different types of traditional conservation measures are old
age practices developed through gradual, but dynamic processes across generations. Subsequently, at the time of
the survey, 98.5 percent of the non-adopters were using traditional measures to reduce runoff speed and for the
purpose of water harvesting and soil conservation. Traditional earth bunds (86 percent), stone bund (16.3
Journal of Biology, Agriculture and Healthcare www.iiste.org
ISSN 2224-3208 (Paper) ISSN 2225-093X (Online)
Vol.3, No.11, 2013
14
percent), water way (97.1 percent), tied ridges, (4.7 percent) and stone check-dam (1.4 percent) were the major
traditional measures used by the same households. These figures are good indications of how conservation
practices are important in the farming system of the area.
The most widely and intensively used improved soil and water conservation practices were fanyajuu, cut off
drains, soil bund, stone bund, check-dam and farm forestry. As well, majority (97.8 percent) of these households
adopted grass strip, mostly with soil and stone bunds and 58.5 percent of them planted different trees on their
farm. From the users of the technologies, only 33.9 percent were using a single conservation strategy, while 121
(66.1 percent) used combinations of two, three and more conservation strategies on their plots.
From the field observations through transect walk, the researcher also learned that despite the presence of
technical standards for the construction of improved structures there were variability among farms constructed
on similar slope gradients in terms of height, width and spacing. In addition, the quality of structures constructed
by food for work (FFW) was relatively low and the farmers were expected to invest on it for maintenance.
Ttraditional and improved measures have also similar characteristics in terms of purpose and material required
for implementation. Both are practiced for the purpose of soil trapping and water harvesting. However, they are
different in durability, duration, labour source for construction and time of construction (Wagayehu, 2006). The
sampled respondents also indicated that they used conservation measures in their farm for the purpose of
conserving soil (6.2 percent), conserving water (3.8 percent) and for both purposes (90.3 percent).
These attributes of the conservation measures are also considered as one of the factors influencing farmers’
adoption decision. In view of this, farmers were asked about the problems associated with the major improved
conservation strategies of land management practices. All respondents agreed that improved conservation
measures are more effective than the traditional ones but require more labour, frequent maintenance, reductions
of farm size and difficulty to turn oxen (Table 2). The output of the focus group discussions with different
groups of farmers also confirmed that comparing with their relative advantages; the problems of stone bund and
check-dam are tolerable (labour intensive and maintenances requirement). As to the farmers, stone bunds and
check-dam are suitable to reduce surface runoff velocity and maintain eroded sediments by retaining soil, and
thereby make possible cultivation of fallow and virgin land. Whereas the problems related to soil buds
(ineffectiveness in reducing soil erosion, space it occupies and difficulty for farm operation) are intolerable. This
shows how farmers give different weight for each problem so as to make choices among the practices.
To maintain the fertility of their farm, 95.2 percent and 61.9 percent of the sampled households also used
intercropping and crop rotation, respectively. Moreover, 47 percent and 78.4 percent of the total sampled
households used organic manure and chemical fertilizer for a similar purpose. The average application of
chemical fertilizer of program and non-program households at the time of the survey were 191.85 Kg/ha and
160.62 Kg/ha, respectively. The results show that there was no significant difference between the two groups in
the mean application of both chemical and natural fertilizers during the same year.
3.3. Farmers’ perception of the impacts of land degradation and its’ conservation measures on crop productivity
and income
The survey result shows that higher proportions (82.7 percent) of the sampled households were aware of about
the problem of soil erosion and majority of these households (54.5 percent) perceived erosion on their land as
severe. The sampled households’ responses about the rate of soil erosion in their area for the last ten years based
on their knowledge showed that, 37.1 percent erosion is happening very rapidly, 11.9 percent moderately and 51
percent slowly. They were also asked when erosion becomes severe in their area. Accordingly, 19.6 percent
reported that severe erosion was started 20 years and before, 24.4 percent as 15-20 years, 29.3 percent as 6-14
years and the rest 25.4 percent as the last 5 years, 1.3 percent reported that there is no erosion at all.
Farmers were also asked to judge the fertility status of their farmlands and the result indicated only 7.9 percent
of farmers perceived their lands to be high in fertility, 21.6 percent judged the fertility status to be medium,
another 62.4 percent said their lands were low in fertility, and the remaining 8.1 percent said their lands were
poor in fertility. The analysis response of farm households on the severity of fertility decline on their farm shows,
28.1 percent perceived less severe, 57.9 percent sever and 13.9 percent very severe problem in fertility decline.
Of the total respondents, 49.5 percent and 22.5 percent using traditional measures were those with medium and
high perception on land degradation (soil erosion and soil fertility decline), respectively. This indicates that
perceiving problems of land degradation not always guaranteed for the use of improved soil and water
conservation measures in the study area. Rather, other factors which affect their decision should come into play.
Farmers were asked whether some of their practices are causing damage on their own farm or not. A significant
proportion (57.8 percent of sample households, 30.7 percent of the adopters and 69.3 percent of the non-adopters)
did not realize that some of their practices cause damage to their own farm plots and relate cause of soil erosion
to run off (45.2 percent), excess rain fall (28.1 percent) (Table 5). They were also interviewed regarding their
practice that cause damage to down slope land users plots, again majority of sample respondents (62.7 percent)
reported they did not understand some of their farming practices contributes to the occurrence of soil erosion to
Journal of Biology, Agriculture and Healthcare www.iiste.org
ISSN 2224-3208 (Paper) ISSN 2225-093X (Online)
Vol.3, No.11, 2013
15
down slope land users’ plots. Such views agree with the result of Woldeamlak (2003) in the North Western
highland of Ethiopia and Kidane (2008) in South Wello, Ethiopia. This implies that still farmers fail to
understand their contribution to soil erosion, which may need extension intervention to improve their
understanding regarding causes of erosion. The result of different focus group discussions conducted with
different members of people in the area also confirmed for the same.
Concerning the perception of farmers to the causes of soil fertility decline on their farms, the respondents ranked
soil erosion (43.9), lack of bunds (34.2), limited use of manure (11.1), age of land due to repeated cultivation
(7.3), shortage of fallowing (1.2) and limited use of fertilizer (0.5) as the first reason for the decline of soil
fertility. This shows how farmers in the study area associate soil fertility decline with soil erosion and absence of
buds on farm plots, which is probably an opportunity to promote conservation strategies.
With the intention of understanding the community perception on the impacts of land degradation, the
respondents were asked to mention the major consequences of degradation that they faced. Accordingly, 89.4
percent of the households suggested that land degradation bring productivity decline, 10.61 percent reported it
decreases the soil depth, color and changed the type of crops grown, 16.06 percent claimed it exposed stone
rocks, deteriorate water holding capacity and made land preparation difficult, and for 44.55 percent of them, it
results gully and sandy soil formation which reduced farm size. Of all the identified consequences, the worst that
the farmers faced was soil productivity decline. More than 55 percent of sampled households also believe that
the impact of land degradation on yield/productivity decline of their lands was severe. Comparing with the non-
adopters, the severity of degradation and its’ impact on yield was better recognized among the adopters; where
over 63.4 percent of them have very bad erosion which caused significant yield reduction (Table 4). The findings
of Woldeamlak (2003) and Seid (2009) also indicated that understanding and recognition of soil erosion as a
problem on own farm and its cause and impact on crop yields is the first step towards searching for and adoption
of remedial measures.
Based on their perception, the soil and water conservation adopters were also asked to suggest their views about
the importance of soil and water conservation measures. Thus, 62.7 percent of them suggested that soil and water
conservation technologies are extremely important, 31.2 percent very important, 5.8 percent somewhat important,
0.9 percent not very important. This finding on farmers' perception analysis also showed that more percentage
(98.9 percent) of the total households were perceptive about the impact of soil and water conservation in
improving soil fertility and yield/production. One of the reasons behind fewer numbers (0.9 percent) of
household perceptions on soil and water conservation is believed to be inaccessibly of information on the extent
of the severity of the problem at large. Regarding the effectiveness of conservation structures, 82.9 percent of the
interviewee confirmed that the currently adopted conservation technologies with the support of different projects
are by far effective than the previous innervations with different approaches.
At the suggested level of perception on the importance of conservation measures, majority (91 percent) of the
households strongly agreed that both the community and government bodies should be responsible for
conservation activities, 4.55 percent strongly agree that it should be by only landowners, and the rest 2.12
percent strongly agree that it should be only by the government. In line with this, 73 percent of the sample
respondents argued that to make the intervention sustainable, farmers should not be paid for construction of soil
and water conservation practices on their farms. Majority of the respondents (95.6 percent) also mentioned
farmers should be responsible for maintenances of the physical conservation measures which are constructed
either in PSNP or by farmers themselves on farm land. As to the respondents’ view, farmers should be paid or
supported on farms or plots where constructions of bunds are difficult for individual households (especially land
between valleys).
4. Conclusion and policy implication
Farmers have their own perception in evaluating the problem, causes and consequence of land degradation (soil
erosion and soil fertility decline). However, regardless of farmers’ perception on the impact of land degradation,
its influence on use of improved measures was not significant as anticipated. Significant proportion farmers who
perceived the impact of land degradation and its’ conservation measures on crop productivity and income were
not using any of the practices or were using traditional measures. This might be due to the failure of the
interventions to notice inter-household variations (age, education etc.), or it may also be related with lack of
willingness of farmers to use the improved land management technologies. Hence, such interventions should
consider heterogeneity in the above factors in the design and promotion of the conservation practices. Moreover,
to encourage adoption of improved conservation measures extension, institutional support programs and projects
which promote soil and water conservation technologies should have strategies which focus on enhancing the
willingness of farm households.
Journal of Biology, Agriculture and Healthcare www.iiste.org
ISSN 2224-3208 (Paper) ISSN 2225-093X (Online)
Vol.3, No.11, 2013
16
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to thank to Haramaya University for providing financial support for this research through
a fund procure from Sweden Government (Sida/ SAREC project).
References
Assefa D. 2009. Assessment of Upland Erosion Processes and Farmer’s Perception of Land Conservation in
Debre-Mewi Watershed, Near Lake Tana, Ethiopia. A Thesis Presented to the Faculty of Graduate School of
Cornell University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Masters of Professional
Studies.104p.
Bekele S, Okello J, Ratna VR. 2009. Adoption and Adaptation of Natural Resource Management Innovations in
Smallholder Agriculture: Reflections on Key Lessons and Best Practices. Environment, Development and
Sustainability, 11: 601-619.
Gete Z, Menale K, Pender J, Mahmud Y. 2006. Stakeholder Analysis for Sustainable Land Management (SLM)
in Ethiopia: Assessment of Opportunities, Strategic Constraints, Information Needs, and Knowledge Gaps.
Environmental Economics Policy Forum. 97p.
Kidane G. 2001. Factors Influencing the Adoption of New Wheat Verities, in Tigray, Ethiopia: the Case of
Hawizen District. An MSc Thesis Presented to the School of Graduate Studies of Alemaya University.164p.
Kidane T. 2008. Determinants of Physical Soil and Water Conservation Practices: The Case of Bati District,
Oromyia Zone, Amhara Reion, Ethiopia. M.Sc. Thesis Presented to the School of Graduates of Alemaya
University, Alemaya. 162p.
Kirubel M, Gebreyesus B. 2011. Impact assessment of soil and water conservation measures at Medego
watershed in Tigray, northern Ethiopia. Maejo International Journal of Science and Technology. 5(03): 312-330.
Million T, Belay K. 2004. Factors influencing adoption of soil conservation measures in southern Ethiopia: The
Case of Gununo Area. Journal of Agriculture and Rural Development in the Tropics and Subtropics, 105 (1): 49-
62
PEDBRSO (Planning and Economic Development Bureau of the Regional State of Oromia), 2010. Zonal Atlas
of West Harerghe Zone. 112p.
Seid H. 2009. Determinants of Physical Soil and Water Conservation Practices: The Case of Bati District,
Oromyia Zone, Amhara Reion, Ethiopia. M.Sc. Thesis Presented to the School of Graduates of Alemaya
University, Alemaya. 162p.
Shiferaw B, Bantilan C. 2004. Rural Poverty and Natural Resource Management in Less-favored Areas:
Revisiting Challenges and Conceptual Issues. Journal of Food, Agriculture and Environment, 2(1): 328-339.
Woldeamlak B, Sterk G. 2003. Farmers’ Participation in Soil and Water Conservation Activities in Chemoga
Watershed, Blue Nile Basin, Ethiopia. Land Degradation and Development. Journal of Agricultural Economics,
13: 189- 200.
WHZBOFED (West Harerghe Zone Finance and Economic Development Office), 2007. Annual Report
Table 1. Household income (in ETB)
Income type
Total sample Adopters Non-adopters
t-value
Mean STD Mean STD Mean STD
Age 43.27 10.47 44.74 9.70 42.03 10.95 2.59**
Farm experience 21.48 9.55 23.95 8.98 20.05 9.68 4.14***
Family size 7.03 2.80 7.32 2.79 6.78 2.79 1.95*
Land size 0.98 0.57 1.07 0.65 0.89 0.46 3.04***
Livestock (TLU) 2.09 2.06 2.81 2.24 1.49 1.66 6.57***
Net crop income 15309.2 5956.6 17984.6 6764.3 13077.6 4010.5 3.35***
Net livestock income 1062.6 1036.1 1418.9 1134.4 765.4 840.0 6.33***
Off/non-farm income 1859.7 3503.3 1798.6 7403.5 1910.6 3108.2 -0.31
Net household income 18231.5 7673.5 21202.1 8623.7 15753.7 5717.9 7.170***
Source: Computed from survey data
*** means significant at the 1% probability level
Journal of Biology, Agriculture and Healthcare www.iiste.org
ISSN 2224-3208 (Paper) ISSN 2225-093X (Online)
Vol.3, No.11, 2013
17
Table 2. Improved soil and water conservation practices used by adopters
SWC technologies N (%)
Grass strip 179(97.8%)
Cut off drain 112(61.2%)
Soil bund 130(71.0%)
Fanyajuu 89(48.6%)
Stone bund 99(53.5%)
Check-dam 13(7.1%)
Farm forestry (in number) 107(58.5%)
Integrated SWC -
Note that there are multiple response
Source: Computed from survey data
Table 3. Farmers’ response to problems associated with conservation measures
Problems of SWC
Improved SWCPs Traditional SWCPs
Soil
bund
fanya
juu
Stone
bund
Check
dam
Earth bund Stone bund
Labour intensive 42.7 62.8 87.9 97.1 4.7 17.6
Requires frequent maintenance 72.9 49.5 57.8 58.4 21.9 86.9
Difficult to implement 12.6 17.6 29.4 29.4 - 3.3
Take land out of production 72.9 9.5 13.8 12.6 37.6 3.4
Difficult to turn oxen 55.3 18.8 29.4 17.6 11.6 1.3
Increases rodent and pest incidence 5.0 16.3 16.9 17.1 35.9 7.4
Not effective to reduce soil erosion 29.4 2.5 3.3 1.3 31.3 55.5
Note that there are multiple responses
Source: Computed from survey data
Table 4. Farmers’ perceptions about the impact of land degradation and SWC
Source: Computed from survey data
*** and ** means significant at the 1% and 5% probability levels, respectively
Variables
Total sample (N=398)
Adopters
(N=183)
Non- adopters
(N=215) χ2
N % N % N %
Perception of the severity of soil
erosion
Severe 217 54.5 103 56.3 114 53.0
Moderate 112 28.1 59 32.1 53 24.7 11.150**
Low 64 16.1 21 11.5 43 20.0
No erosion 5 1.3 - - 5 2.3
Perception of soil fertility decline
Very severe 110 13.9 69 17.4 41 10.5
Severe 456 57.9 225 56.8 231 59.1 8.482**
Less severe 221 28.1 102 25.8 119 30.4
Perceived impacts of land degradation
on land production
Severe 221 55.5 116 63.4 105 48.8
Moderate 135 33.9 54 29.5 81 37.7
Low Effect 29 7.3 12 6.6 17 7.9 32.296***
No Effect 13 3.3 1 0.5 12 5.6
Journal of Biology, Agriculture and Healthcare www.iiste.org
ISSN 2224-3208 (Paper) ISSN 2225-093X (Online)
Vol.3, No.11, 2013
18
Table 5. Farmers’ perceptions of causes of soil erosion and decline of soil fertility
Causes
% Responses number (398)
1st
2nd
3rd
4th
5th
Cases of soil erosion
Excessive rainfall 28.1 20.6 16.9 19.4 15
Cultivation of steep slopes 11.9 16.3 17.3 31.6 22.9
Over cultivation 12.5 10.6 1.95 31.6 25.8
Poor agricultural practices 6.3 35 25 2.5 31.2
Runoff 45.2 25.4 17.3 9.8 2.3
Reasons of soil fertility decline
Limited use of fertilizer 0.5 1.2 7.5 12.6 78.2
Limited use of manure 11.1 30.1 17.6 7.3 33.7
Soil erosion 43.9 27.1 16.3 9.8 2.8
Lack of bund 34.2 11.9 25.4 17.6 10.8
Absence of fallowing 1.2 3.0 7.3 11.1 77.4
Age of land due to repeated cultivation 7.3 16.3 17.6 27.1 31.7
Source: Computed from survey data
Fig. 1. Map of Ethiopia and West Harerghe Zone
This academic article was published by The International Institute for Science,
Technology and Education (IISTE). The IISTE is a pioneer in the Open Access
Publishing service based in the U.S. and Europe. The aim of the institute is
Accelerating Global Knowledge Sharing.
More information about the publisher can be found in the IISTE’s homepage:
http://www.iiste.org
CALL FOR JOURNAL PAPERS
The IISTE is currently hosting more than 30 peer-reviewed academic journals and
collaborating with academic institutions around the world. There’s no deadline for
submission. Prospective authors of IISTE journals can find the submission
instruction on the following page: http://www.iiste.org/journals/ The IISTE
editorial team promises to the review and publish all the qualified submissions in a
fast manner. All the journals articles are available online to the readers all over the
world without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from
gaining access to the internet itself. Printed version of the journals is also available
upon request of readers and authors.
MORE RESOURCES
Book publication information: http://www.iiste.org/book/
Recent conferences: http://www.iiste.org/conference/
IISTE Knowledge Sharing Partners
EBSCO, Index Copernicus, Ulrich's Periodicals Directory, JournalTOCS, PKP Open
Archives Harvester, Bielefeld Academic Search Engine, Elektronische
Zeitschriftenbibliothek EZB, Open J-Gate, OCLC WorldCat, Universe Digtial
Library , NewJour, Google Scholar

Weitere ähnliche Inhalte

Was ist angesagt?

The response of haricot bean to phosphorus application on ultisols at areka, ...
The response of haricot bean to phosphorus application on ultisols at areka, ...The response of haricot bean to phosphorus application on ultisols at areka, ...
The response of haricot bean to phosphorus application on ultisols at areka, ...Alexander Decker
 
11.the response of haricot bean to phosphorus application on ultisols at arek...
11.the response of haricot bean to phosphorus application on ultisols at arek...11.the response of haricot bean to phosphorus application on ultisols at arek...
11.the response of haricot bean to phosphorus application on ultisols at arek...Alexander Decker
 
Application of np fertilizers for better production of teff
Application of np fertilizers for better production of teffApplication of np fertilizers for better production of teff
Application of np fertilizers for better production of teffAlexander Decker
 
Factors influencing farmer’s participation in agricultural projects the case ...
Factors influencing farmer’s participation in agricultural projects the case ...Factors influencing farmer’s participation in agricultural projects the case ...
Factors influencing farmer’s participation in agricultural projects the case ...Alexander Decker
 
Bhutan
BhutanBhutan
BhutanFAO
 
Assessing soil nutrient depletion to household food insecurity in the smallho...
Assessing soil nutrient depletion to household food insecurity in the smallho...Assessing soil nutrient depletion to household food insecurity in the smallho...
Assessing soil nutrient depletion to household food insecurity in the smallho...Alexander Decker
 
11.economic analysis of land allocation use and intensification among arable ...
11.economic analysis of land allocation use and intensification among arable ...11.economic analysis of land allocation use and intensification among arable ...
11.economic analysis of land allocation use and intensification among arable ...Alexander Decker
 
Soil degradation in india
Soil degradation in indiaSoil degradation in india
Soil degradation in indiaTapanMoran
 
Impact of organic and conventional practices on, soil health and crop yield u...
Impact of organic and conventional practices on, soil health and crop yield u...Impact of organic and conventional practices on, soil health and crop yield u...
Impact of organic and conventional practices on, soil health and crop yield u...Agriculture Journal IJOEAR
 
Role of Organic and Inorganic Fertilizers on the Performance of Some Medicin...
 Role of Organic and Inorganic Fertilizers on the Performance of Some Medicin... Role of Organic and Inorganic Fertilizers on the Performance of Some Medicin...
Role of Organic and Inorganic Fertilizers on the Performance of Some Medicin...Premier Publishers
 
Ijaar v8 no2-p64-74 | Impact of environmental conditions on the yield variabi...
Ijaar v8 no2-p64-74 | Impact of environmental conditions on the yield variabi...Ijaar v8 no2-p64-74 | Impact of environmental conditions on the yield variabi...
Ijaar v8 no2-p64-74 | Impact of environmental conditions on the yield variabi...Innspub Net
 
Implication of agricultural practices, commercial logging and forest conserva...
Implication of agricultural practices, commercial logging and forest conserva...Implication of agricultural practices, commercial logging and forest conserva...
Implication of agricultural practices, commercial logging and forest conserva...Alexander Decker
 
conservation agricultural improved practices in cropping systems
conservation agricultural improved practices in cropping systems conservation agricultural improved practices in cropping systems
conservation agricultural improved practices in cropping systems komandla venkat kiran reddy
 
Soil Degradation In The Developing World With Sound
Soil Degradation In The Developing World With SoundSoil Degradation In The Developing World With Sound
Soil Degradation In The Developing World With Soundpauleycue
 
SOIL DEGRADATION AND CONSERVATION
SOIL DEGRADATION AND CONSERVATIONSOIL DEGRADATION AND CONSERVATION
SOIL DEGRADATION AND CONSERVATIONshahzadebaujiti
 
Effects of drip irrigation frequency and depth on soil hydro-physical propert...
Effects of drip irrigation frequency and depth on soil hydro-physical propert...Effects of drip irrigation frequency and depth on soil hydro-physical propert...
Effects of drip irrigation frequency and depth on soil hydro-physical propert...inventionjournals
 
11.combined application of organic and inorganic fertilizers to increase yiel...
11.combined application of organic and inorganic fertilizers to increase yiel...11.combined application of organic and inorganic fertilizers to increase yiel...
11.combined application of organic and inorganic fertilizers to increase yiel...Alexander Decker
 

Was ist angesagt? (20)

The response of haricot bean to phosphorus application on ultisols at areka, ...
The response of haricot bean to phosphorus application on ultisols at areka, ...The response of haricot bean to phosphorus application on ultisols at areka, ...
The response of haricot bean to phosphorus application on ultisols at areka, ...
 
11.the response of haricot bean to phosphorus application on ultisols at arek...
11.the response of haricot bean to phosphorus application on ultisols at arek...11.the response of haricot bean to phosphorus application on ultisols at arek...
11.the response of haricot bean to phosphorus application on ultisols at arek...
 
Application of np fertilizers for better production of teff
Application of np fertilizers for better production of teffApplication of np fertilizers for better production of teff
Application of np fertilizers for better production of teff
 
Factors influencing farmer’s participation in agricultural projects the case ...
Factors influencing farmer’s participation in agricultural projects the case ...Factors influencing farmer’s participation in agricultural projects the case ...
Factors influencing farmer’s participation in agricultural projects the case ...
 
Bhutan
BhutanBhutan
Bhutan
 
Conservation agriculture for soil health sustainability
Conservation agriculture for soil health sustainabilityConservation agriculture for soil health sustainability
Conservation agriculture for soil health sustainability
 
Assessing soil nutrient depletion to household food insecurity in the smallho...
Assessing soil nutrient depletion to household food insecurity in the smallho...Assessing soil nutrient depletion to household food insecurity in the smallho...
Assessing soil nutrient depletion to household food insecurity in the smallho...
 
Ijoear dec-2015-2
Ijoear dec-2015-2Ijoear dec-2015-2
Ijoear dec-2015-2
 
11.economic analysis of land allocation use and intensification among arable ...
11.economic analysis of land allocation use and intensification among arable ...11.economic analysis of land allocation use and intensification among arable ...
11.economic analysis of land allocation use and intensification among arable ...
 
Soil degradation in india
Soil degradation in indiaSoil degradation in india
Soil degradation in india
 
Soil and Water Management towards Doubling Farmer’s Income
Soil and Water Management towards Doubling Farmer’s IncomeSoil and Water Management towards Doubling Farmer’s Income
Soil and Water Management towards Doubling Farmer’s Income
 
Impact of organic and conventional practices on, soil health and crop yield u...
Impact of organic and conventional practices on, soil health and crop yield u...Impact of organic and conventional practices on, soil health and crop yield u...
Impact of organic and conventional practices on, soil health and crop yield u...
 
Role of Organic and Inorganic Fertilizers on the Performance of Some Medicin...
 Role of Organic and Inorganic Fertilizers on the Performance of Some Medicin... Role of Organic and Inorganic Fertilizers on the Performance of Some Medicin...
Role of Organic and Inorganic Fertilizers on the Performance of Some Medicin...
 
Ijaar v8 no2-p64-74 | Impact of environmental conditions on the yield variabi...
Ijaar v8 no2-p64-74 | Impact of environmental conditions on the yield variabi...Ijaar v8 no2-p64-74 | Impact of environmental conditions on the yield variabi...
Ijaar v8 no2-p64-74 | Impact of environmental conditions on the yield variabi...
 
Implication of agricultural practices, commercial logging and forest conserva...
Implication of agricultural practices, commercial logging and forest conserva...Implication of agricultural practices, commercial logging and forest conserva...
Implication of agricultural practices, commercial logging and forest conserva...
 
conservation agricultural improved practices in cropping systems
conservation agricultural improved practices in cropping systems conservation agricultural improved practices in cropping systems
conservation agricultural improved practices in cropping systems
 
Soil Degradation In The Developing World With Sound
Soil Degradation In The Developing World With SoundSoil Degradation In The Developing World With Sound
Soil Degradation In The Developing World With Sound
 
SOIL DEGRADATION AND CONSERVATION
SOIL DEGRADATION AND CONSERVATIONSOIL DEGRADATION AND CONSERVATION
SOIL DEGRADATION AND CONSERVATION
 
Effects of drip irrigation frequency and depth on soil hydro-physical propert...
Effects of drip irrigation frequency and depth on soil hydro-physical propert...Effects of drip irrigation frequency and depth on soil hydro-physical propert...
Effects of drip irrigation frequency and depth on soil hydro-physical propert...
 
11.combined application of organic and inorganic fertilizers to increase yiel...
11.combined application of organic and inorganic fertilizers to increase yiel...11.combined application of organic and inorganic fertilizers to increase yiel...
11.combined application of organic and inorganic fertilizers to increase yiel...
 

Ähnlich wie Farmers’ perception of the impact of land degradation and soil and water conservation measures in west harerghe zone of oromia national regional state, ethiopia.

Ethiopian rangeland condition, management and improvement technique1.pdf
Ethiopian rangeland condition, management and improvement technique1.pdfEthiopian rangeland condition, management and improvement technique1.pdf
Ethiopian rangeland condition, management and improvement technique1.pdfYusufAhmed96
 
Assessment of Indigenous Knowledge of Smallholder Farmers on Intercropping Pr...
Assessment of Indigenous Knowledge of Smallholder Farmers on Intercropping Pr...Assessment of Indigenous Knowledge of Smallholder Farmers on Intercropping Pr...
Assessment of Indigenous Knowledge of Smallholder Farmers on Intercropping Pr...Premier Publishers
 
The Impact of Climate Change on Teff Production in Southeast Tigray, Ethiopia
The Impact of Climate Change on Teff Production in Southeast Tigray, EthiopiaThe Impact of Climate Change on Teff Production in Southeast Tigray, Ethiopia
The Impact of Climate Change on Teff Production in Southeast Tigray, EthiopiaPremier Publishers
 
Assessing the sustainability of forest plantations in Mezam Division of the N...
Assessing the sustainability of forest plantations in Mezam Division of the N...Assessing the sustainability of forest plantations in Mezam Division of the N...
Assessing the sustainability of forest plantations in Mezam Division of the N...ijsrd.com
 
Supply Response of Haricot Bean: The Case of Boricha District, Southern Ethiopia
Supply Response of Haricot Bean: The Case of Boricha District, Southern EthiopiaSupply Response of Haricot Bean: The Case of Boricha District, Southern Ethiopia
Supply Response of Haricot Bean: The Case of Boricha District, Southern EthiopiaJournal of Agriculture and Crops
 
On farm management of persea americana
On farm management of persea americanaOn farm management of persea americana
On farm management of persea americanaAlexander Decker
 
Determinants of farmers’ willingness to pay for irrigation water use: the cas...
Determinants of farmers’ willingness to pay for irrigation water use: the cas...Determinants of farmers’ willingness to pay for irrigation water use: the cas...
Determinants of farmers’ willingness to pay for irrigation water use: the cas...Premier Publishers
 
Smallholder Farmers’ Adaptation Strategies to Climate Change: The Case of Ank...
Smallholder Farmers’ Adaptation Strategies to Climate Change: The Case of Ank...Smallholder Farmers’ Adaptation Strategies to Climate Change: The Case of Ank...
Smallholder Farmers’ Adaptation Strategies to Climate Change: The Case of Ank...Premier Publishers
 
Pastoralists’ Perception of Resource-use Conflicts as a Challenge to Livestoc...
Pastoralists’ Perception of Resource-use Conflicts as a Challenge to Livestoc...Pastoralists’ Perception of Resource-use Conflicts as a Challenge to Livestoc...
Pastoralists’ Perception of Resource-use Conflicts as a Challenge to Livestoc...BRNSS Publication Hub
 
Effects of Climate Change Variability on Physical, Natural, and Financial Liv...
Effects of Climate Change Variability on Physical, Natural, and Financial Liv...Effects of Climate Change Variability on Physical, Natural, and Financial Liv...
Effects of Climate Change Variability on Physical, Natural, and Financial Liv...BRNSSPublicationHubI
 
Evaluation of land use practice and its future consequence on dilla zuria wor...
Evaluation of land use practice and its future consequence on dilla zuria wor...Evaluation of land use practice and its future consequence on dilla zuria wor...
Evaluation of land use practice and its future consequence on dilla zuria wor...zinabu wolde
 
Farmers’ perception of climate change in ikwuano local government area of abi...
Farmers’ perception of climate change in ikwuano local government area of abi...Farmers’ perception of climate change in ikwuano local government area of abi...
Farmers’ perception of climate change in ikwuano local government area of abi...Alexander Decker
 
Adaptation to climate change and variability in eastern ethiopia
Adaptation to climate change and variability in eastern ethiopiaAdaptation to climate change and variability in eastern ethiopia
Adaptation to climate change and variability in eastern ethiopiaAlexander Decker
 
Analysis of farmers perceptions of the effects of climate change in kenya the...
Analysis of farmers perceptions of the effects of climate change in kenya the...Analysis of farmers perceptions of the effects of climate change in kenya the...
Analysis of farmers perceptions of the effects of climate change in kenya the...Alexander Decker
 
Influence of cowpea and soybean intercropping pattern and time of planting on...
Influence of cowpea and soybean intercropping pattern and time of planting on...Influence of cowpea and soybean intercropping pattern and time of planting on...
Influence of cowpea and soybean intercropping pattern and time of planting on...Premier Publishers
 
A comparative study on socio economic status and agricultural
A comparative study on socio economic status and agriculturalA comparative study on socio economic status and agricultural
A comparative study on socio economic status and agriculturalDr. Binoy Tripura
 
Understanding Drought Coping Mechanisms in Smallholder Farm Households: Evide...
Understanding Drought Coping Mechanisms in Smallholder Farm Households: Evide...Understanding Drought Coping Mechanisms in Smallholder Farm Households: Evide...
Understanding Drought Coping Mechanisms in Smallholder Farm Households: Evide...Premier Publishers
 
Determinants of Small-Scale Irrigation Use: The Case of Jeldu District, West ...
Determinants of Small-Scale Irrigation Use: The Case of Jeldu District, West ...Determinants of Small-Scale Irrigation Use: The Case of Jeldu District, West ...
Determinants of Small-Scale Irrigation Use: The Case of Jeldu District, West ...Premier Publishers
 

Ähnlich wie Farmers’ perception of the impact of land degradation and soil and water conservation measures in west harerghe zone of oromia national regional state, ethiopia. (20)

Ethiopian rangeland condition, management and improvement technique1.pdf
Ethiopian rangeland condition, management and improvement technique1.pdfEthiopian rangeland condition, management and improvement technique1.pdf
Ethiopian rangeland condition, management and improvement technique1.pdf
 
Assessment of Indigenous Knowledge of Smallholder Farmers on Intercropping Pr...
Assessment of Indigenous Knowledge of Smallholder Farmers on Intercropping Pr...Assessment of Indigenous Knowledge of Smallholder Farmers on Intercropping Pr...
Assessment of Indigenous Knowledge of Smallholder Farmers on Intercropping Pr...
 
Food Security and Adaptation Strategies to Climate Change in Eastern Ethiopia
Food Security and Adaptation Strategies to Climate Change in Eastern EthiopiaFood Security and Adaptation Strategies to Climate Change in Eastern Ethiopia
Food Security and Adaptation Strategies to Climate Change in Eastern Ethiopia
 
Food Security and Adaptation Strategies to Climate Change in Eastern Ethiopia
Food Security and Adaptation Strategies to Climate Change in Eastern EthiopiaFood Security and Adaptation Strategies to Climate Change in Eastern Ethiopia
Food Security and Adaptation Strategies to Climate Change in Eastern Ethiopia
 
The Impact of Climate Change on Teff Production in Southeast Tigray, Ethiopia
The Impact of Climate Change on Teff Production in Southeast Tigray, EthiopiaThe Impact of Climate Change on Teff Production in Southeast Tigray, Ethiopia
The Impact of Climate Change on Teff Production in Southeast Tigray, Ethiopia
 
Assessing the sustainability of forest plantations in Mezam Division of the N...
Assessing the sustainability of forest plantations in Mezam Division of the N...Assessing the sustainability of forest plantations in Mezam Division of the N...
Assessing the sustainability of forest plantations in Mezam Division of the N...
 
Supply Response of Haricot Bean: The Case of Boricha District, Southern Ethiopia
Supply Response of Haricot Bean: The Case of Boricha District, Southern EthiopiaSupply Response of Haricot Bean: The Case of Boricha District, Southern Ethiopia
Supply Response of Haricot Bean: The Case of Boricha District, Southern Ethiopia
 
On farm management of persea americana
On farm management of persea americanaOn farm management of persea americana
On farm management of persea americana
 
Determinants of farmers’ willingness to pay for irrigation water use: the cas...
Determinants of farmers’ willingness to pay for irrigation water use: the cas...Determinants of farmers’ willingness to pay for irrigation water use: the cas...
Determinants of farmers’ willingness to pay for irrigation water use: the cas...
 
Smallholder Farmers’ Adaptation Strategies to Climate Change: The Case of Ank...
Smallholder Farmers’ Adaptation Strategies to Climate Change: The Case of Ank...Smallholder Farmers’ Adaptation Strategies to Climate Change: The Case of Ank...
Smallholder Farmers’ Adaptation Strategies to Climate Change: The Case of Ank...
 
Pastoralists’ Perception of Resource-use Conflicts as a Challenge to Livestoc...
Pastoralists’ Perception of Resource-use Conflicts as a Challenge to Livestoc...Pastoralists’ Perception of Resource-use Conflicts as a Challenge to Livestoc...
Pastoralists’ Perception of Resource-use Conflicts as a Challenge to Livestoc...
 
Effects of Climate Change Variability on Physical, Natural, and Financial Liv...
Effects of Climate Change Variability on Physical, Natural, and Financial Liv...Effects of Climate Change Variability on Physical, Natural, and Financial Liv...
Effects of Climate Change Variability on Physical, Natural, and Financial Liv...
 
Evaluation of land use practice and its future consequence on dilla zuria wor...
Evaluation of land use practice and its future consequence on dilla zuria wor...Evaluation of land use practice and its future consequence on dilla zuria wor...
Evaluation of land use practice and its future consequence on dilla zuria wor...
 
Farmers’ perception of climate change in ikwuano local government area of abi...
Farmers’ perception of climate change in ikwuano local government area of abi...Farmers’ perception of climate change in ikwuano local government area of abi...
Farmers’ perception of climate change in ikwuano local government area of abi...
 
Adaptation to climate change and variability in eastern ethiopia
Adaptation to climate change and variability in eastern ethiopiaAdaptation to climate change and variability in eastern ethiopia
Adaptation to climate change and variability in eastern ethiopia
 
Analysis of farmers perceptions of the effects of climate change in kenya the...
Analysis of farmers perceptions of the effects of climate change in kenya the...Analysis of farmers perceptions of the effects of climate change in kenya the...
Analysis of farmers perceptions of the effects of climate change in kenya the...
 
Influence of cowpea and soybean intercropping pattern and time of planting on...
Influence of cowpea and soybean intercropping pattern and time of planting on...Influence of cowpea and soybean intercropping pattern and time of planting on...
Influence of cowpea and soybean intercropping pattern and time of planting on...
 
A comparative study on socio economic status and agricultural
A comparative study on socio economic status and agriculturalA comparative study on socio economic status and agricultural
A comparative study on socio economic status and agricultural
 
Understanding Drought Coping Mechanisms in Smallholder Farm Households: Evide...
Understanding Drought Coping Mechanisms in Smallholder Farm Households: Evide...Understanding Drought Coping Mechanisms in Smallholder Farm Households: Evide...
Understanding Drought Coping Mechanisms in Smallholder Farm Households: Evide...
 
Determinants of Small-Scale Irrigation Use: The Case of Jeldu District, West ...
Determinants of Small-Scale Irrigation Use: The Case of Jeldu District, West ...Determinants of Small-Scale Irrigation Use: The Case of Jeldu District, West ...
Determinants of Small-Scale Irrigation Use: The Case of Jeldu District, West ...
 

Mehr von Alexander Decker

Abnormalities of hormones and inflammatory cytokines in women affected with p...
Abnormalities of hormones and inflammatory cytokines in women affected with p...Abnormalities of hormones and inflammatory cytokines in women affected with p...
Abnormalities of hormones and inflammatory cytokines in women affected with p...Alexander Decker
 
A validation of the adverse childhood experiences scale in
A validation of the adverse childhood experiences scale inA validation of the adverse childhood experiences scale in
A validation of the adverse childhood experiences scale inAlexander Decker
 
A usability evaluation framework for b2 c e commerce websites
A usability evaluation framework for b2 c e commerce websitesA usability evaluation framework for b2 c e commerce websites
A usability evaluation framework for b2 c e commerce websitesAlexander Decker
 
A universal model for managing the marketing executives in nigerian banks
A universal model for managing the marketing executives in nigerian banksA universal model for managing the marketing executives in nigerian banks
A universal model for managing the marketing executives in nigerian banksAlexander Decker
 
A unique common fixed point theorems in generalized d
A unique common fixed point theorems in generalized dA unique common fixed point theorems in generalized d
A unique common fixed point theorems in generalized dAlexander Decker
 
A trends of salmonella and antibiotic resistance
A trends of salmonella and antibiotic resistanceA trends of salmonella and antibiotic resistance
A trends of salmonella and antibiotic resistanceAlexander Decker
 
A transformational generative approach towards understanding al-istifham
A transformational  generative approach towards understanding al-istifhamA transformational  generative approach towards understanding al-istifham
A transformational generative approach towards understanding al-istifhamAlexander Decker
 
A time series analysis of the determinants of savings in namibia
A time series analysis of the determinants of savings in namibiaA time series analysis of the determinants of savings in namibia
A time series analysis of the determinants of savings in namibiaAlexander Decker
 
A therapy for physical and mental fitness of school children
A therapy for physical and mental fitness of school childrenA therapy for physical and mental fitness of school children
A therapy for physical and mental fitness of school childrenAlexander Decker
 
A theory of efficiency for managing the marketing executives in nigerian banks
A theory of efficiency for managing the marketing executives in nigerian banksA theory of efficiency for managing the marketing executives in nigerian banks
A theory of efficiency for managing the marketing executives in nigerian banksAlexander Decker
 
A systematic evaluation of link budget for
A systematic evaluation of link budget forA systematic evaluation of link budget for
A systematic evaluation of link budget forAlexander Decker
 
A synthetic review of contraceptive supplies in punjab
A synthetic review of contraceptive supplies in punjabA synthetic review of contraceptive supplies in punjab
A synthetic review of contraceptive supplies in punjabAlexander Decker
 
A synthesis of taylor’s and fayol’s management approaches for managing market...
A synthesis of taylor’s and fayol’s management approaches for managing market...A synthesis of taylor’s and fayol’s management approaches for managing market...
A synthesis of taylor’s and fayol’s management approaches for managing market...Alexander Decker
 
A survey paper on sequence pattern mining with incremental
A survey paper on sequence pattern mining with incrementalA survey paper on sequence pattern mining with incremental
A survey paper on sequence pattern mining with incrementalAlexander Decker
 
A survey on live virtual machine migrations and its techniques
A survey on live virtual machine migrations and its techniquesA survey on live virtual machine migrations and its techniques
A survey on live virtual machine migrations and its techniquesAlexander Decker
 
A survey on data mining and analysis in hadoop and mongo db
A survey on data mining and analysis in hadoop and mongo dbA survey on data mining and analysis in hadoop and mongo db
A survey on data mining and analysis in hadoop and mongo dbAlexander Decker
 
A survey on challenges to the media cloud
A survey on challenges to the media cloudA survey on challenges to the media cloud
A survey on challenges to the media cloudAlexander Decker
 
A survey of provenance leveraged
A survey of provenance leveragedA survey of provenance leveraged
A survey of provenance leveragedAlexander Decker
 
A survey of private equity investments in kenya
A survey of private equity investments in kenyaA survey of private equity investments in kenya
A survey of private equity investments in kenyaAlexander Decker
 
A study to measures the financial health of
A study to measures the financial health ofA study to measures the financial health of
A study to measures the financial health ofAlexander Decker
 

Mehr von Alexander Decker (20)

Abnormalities of hormones and inflammatory cytokines in women affected with p...
Abnormalities of hormones and inflammatory cytokines in women affected with p...Abnormalities of hormones and inflammatory cytokines in women affected with p...
Abnormalities of hormones and inflammatory cytokines in women affected with p...
 
A validation of the adverse childhood experiences scale in
A validation of the adverse childhood experiences scale inA validation of the adverse childhood experiences scale in
A validation of the adverse childhood experiences scale in
 
A usability evaluation framework for b2 c e commerce websites
A usability evaluation framework for b2 c e commerce websitesA usability evaluation framework for b2 c e commerce websites
A usability evaluation framework for b2 c e commerce websites
 
A universal model for managing the marketing executives in nigerian banks
A universal model for managing the marketing executives in nigerian banksA universal model for managing the marketing executives in nigerian banks
A universal model for managing the marketing executives in nigerian banks
 
A unique common fixed point theorems in generalized d
A unique common fixed point theorems in generalized dA unique common fixed point theorems in generalized d
A unique common fixed point theorems in generalized d
 
A trends of salmonella and antibiotic resistance
A trends of salmonella and antibiotic resistanceA trends of salmonella and antibiotic resistance
A trends of salmonella and antibiotic resistance
 
A transformational generative approach towards understanding al-istifham
A transformational  generative approach towards understanding al-istifhamA transformational  generative approach towards understanding al-istifham
A transformational generative approach towards understanding al-istifham
 
A time series analysis of the determinants of savings in namibia
A time series analysis of the determinants of savings in namibiaA time series analysis of the determinants of savings in namibia
A time series analysis of the determinants of savings in namibia
 
A therapy for physical and mental fitness of school children
A therapy for physical and mental fitness of school childrenA therapy for physical and mental fitness of school children
A therapy for physical and mental fitness of school children
 
A theory of efficiency for managing the marketing executives in nigerian banks
A theory of efficiency for managing the marketing executives in nigerian banksA theory of efficiency for managing the marketing executives in nigerian banks
A theory of efficiency for managing the marketing executives in nigerian banks
 
A systematic evaluation of link budget for
A systematic evaluation of link budget forA systematic evaluation of link budget for
A systematic evaluation of link budget for
 
A synthetic review of contraceptive supplies in punjab
A synthetic review of contraceptive supplies in punjabA synthetic review of contraceptive supplies in punjab
A synthetic review of contraceptive supplies in punjab
 
A synthesis of taylor’s and fayol’s management approaches for managing market...
A synthesis of taylor’s and fayol’s management approaches for managing market...A synthesis of taylor’s and fayol’s management approaches for managing market...
A synthesis of taylor’s and fayol’s management approaches for managing market...
 
A survey paper on sequence pattern mining with incremental
A survey paper on sequence pattern mining with incrementalA survey paper on sequence pattern mining with incremental
A survey paper on sequence pattern mining with incremental
 
A survey on live virtual machine migrations and its techniques
A survey on live virtual machine migrations and its techniquesA survey on live virtual machine migrations and its techniques
A survey on live virtual machine migrations and its techniques
 
A survey on data mining and analysis in hadoop and mongo db
A survey on data mining and analysis in hadoop and mongo dbA survey on data mining and analysis in hadoop and mongo db
A survey on data mining and analysis in hadoop and mongo db
 
A survey on challenges to the media cloud
A survey on challenges to the media cloudA survey on challenges to the media cloud
A survey on challenges to the media cloud
 
A survey of provenance leveraged
A survey of provenance leveragedA survey of provenance leveraged
A survey of provenance leveraged
 
A survey of private equity investments in kenya
A survey of private equity investments in kenyaA survey of private equity investments in kenya
A survey of private equity investments in kenya
 
A study to measures the financial health of
A study to measures the financial health ofA study to measures the financial health of
A study to measures the financial health of
 

Kürzlich hochgeladen

The Data Metaverse: Unpacking the Roles, Use Cases, and Tech Trends in Data a...
The Data Metaverse: Unpacking the Roles, Use Cases, and Tech Trends in Data a...The Data Metaverse: Unpacking the Roles, Use Cases, and Tech Trends in Data a...
The Data Metaverse: Unpacking the Roles, Use Cases, and Tech Trends in Data a...Aggregage
 
Crea il tuo assistente AI con lo Stregatto (open source python framework)
Crea il tuo assistente AI con lo Stregatto (open source python framework)Crea il tuo assistente AI con lo Stregatto (open source python framework)
Crea il tuo assistente AI con lo Stregatto (open source python framework)Commit University
 
Videogame localization & technology_ how to enhance the power of translation.pdf
Videogame localization & technology_ how to enhance the power of translation.pdfVideogame localization & technology_ how to enhance the power of translation.pdf
Videogame localization & technology_ how to enhance the power of translation.pdfinfogdgmi
 
IaC & GitOps in a Nutshell - a FridayInANuthshell Episode.pdf
IaC & GitOps in a Nutshell - a FridayInANuthshell Episode.pdfIaC & GitOps in a Nutshell - a FridayInANuthshell Episode.pdf
IaC & GitOps in a Nutshell - a FridayInANuthshell Episode.pdfDaniel Santiago Silva Capera
 
activity_diagram_combine_v4_20190827.pdfactivity_diagram_combine_v4_20190827.pdf
activity_diagram_combine_v4_20190827.pdfactivity_diagram_combine_v4_20190827.pdfactivity_diagram_combine_v4_20190827.pdfactivity_diagram_combine_v4_20190827.pdf
activity_diagram_combine_v4_20190827.pdfactivity_diagram_combine_v4_20190827.pdfJamie (Taka) Wang
 
Designing A Time bound resource download URL
Designing A Time bound resource download URLDesigning A Time bound resource download URL
Designing A Time bound resource download URLRuncy Oommen
 
Connector Corner: Extending LLM automation use cases with UiPath GenAI connec...
Connector Corner: Extending LLM automation use cases with UiPath GenAI connec...Connector Corner: Extending LLM automation use cases with UiPath GenAI connec...
Connector Corner: Extending LLM automation use cases with UiPath GenAI connec...DianaGray10
 
Igniting Next Level Productivity with AI-Infused Data Integration Workflows
Igniting Next Level Productivity with AI-Infused Data Integration WorkflowsIgniting Next Level Productivity with AI-Infused Data Integration Workflows
Igniting Next Level Productivity with AI-Infused Data Integration WorkflowsSafe Software
 
UiPath Studio Web workshop series - Day 7
UiPath Studio Web workshop series - Day 7UiPath Studio Web workshop series - Day 7
UiPath Studio Web workshop series - Day 7DianaGray10
 
Linked Data in Production: Moving Beyond Ontologies
Linked Data in Production: Moving Beyond OntologiesLinked Data in Production: Moving Beyond Ontologies
Linked Data in Production: Moving Beyond OntologiesDavid Newbury
 
Computer 10: Lesson 10 - Online Crimes and Hazards
Computer 10: Lesson 10 - Online Crimes and HazardsComputer 10: Lesson 10 - Online Crimes and Hazards
Computer 10: Lesson 10 - Online Crimes and HazardsSeth Reyes
 
Building AI-Driven Apps Using Semantic Kernel.pptx
Building AI-Driven Apps Using Semantic Kernel.pptxBuilding AI-Driven Apps Using Semantic Kernel.pptx
Building AI-Driven Apps Using Semantic Kernel.pptxUdaiappa Ramachandran
 
Building Your Own AI Instance (TBLC AI )
Building Your Own AI Instance (TBLC AI )Building Your Own AI Instance (TBLC AI )
Building Your Own AI Instance (TBLC AI )Brian Pichman
 
Salesforce Miami User Group Event - 1st Quarter 2024
Salesforce Miami User Group Event - 1st Quarter 2024Salesforce Miami User Group Event - 1st Quarter 2024
Salesforce Miami User Group Event - 1st Quarter 2024SkyPlanner
 
UiPath Platform: The Backend Engine Powering Your Automation - Session 1
UiPath Platform: The Backend Engine Powering Your Automation - Session 1UiPath Platform: The Backend Engine Powering Your Automation - Session 1
UiPath Platform: The Backend Engine Powering Your Automation - Session 1DianaGray10
 
Comparing Sidecar-less Service Mesh from Cilium and Istio
Comparing Sidecar-less Service Mesh from Cilium and IstioComparing Sidecar-less Service Mesh from Cilium and Istio
Comparing Sidecar-less Service Mesh from Cilium and IstioChristian Posta
 
Bird eye's view on Camunda open source ecosystem
Bird eye's view on Camunda open source ecosystemBird eye's view on Camunda open source ecosystem
Bird eye's view on Camunda open source ecosystemAsko Soukka
 
Apres-Cyber - The Data Dilemma: Bridging Offensive Operations and Machine Lea...
Apres-Cyber - The Data Dilemma: Bridging Offensive Operations and Machine Lea...Apres-Cyber - The Data Dilemma: Bridging Offensive Operations and Machine Lea...
Apres-Cyber - The Data Dilemma: Bridging Offensive Operations and Machine Lea...Will Schroeder
 

Kürzlich hochgeladen (20)

201610817 - edge part1
201610817 - edge part1201610817 - edge part1
201610817 - edge part1
 
The Data Metaverse: Unpacking the Roles, Use Cases, and Tech Trends in Data a...
The Data Metaverse: Unpacking the Roles, Use Cases, and Tech Trends in Data a...The Data Metaverse: Unpacking the Roles, Use Cases, and Tech Trends in Data a...
The Data Metaverse: Unpacking the Roles, Use Cases, and Tech Trends in Data a...
 
Crea il tuo assistente AI con lo Stregatto (open source python framework)
Crea il tuo assistente AI con lo Stregatto (open source python framework)Crea il tuo assistente AI con lo Stregatto (open source python framework)
Crea il tuo assistente AI con lo Stregatto (open source python framework)
 
Videogame localization & technology_ how to enhance the power of translation.pdf
Videogame localization & technology_ how to enhance the power of translation.pdfVideogame localization & technology_ how to enhance the power of translation.pdf
Videogame localization & technology_ how to enhance the power of translation.pdf
 
IaC & GitOps in a Nutshell - a FridayInANuthshell Episode.pdf
IaC & GitOps in a Nutshell - a FridayInANuthshell Episode.pdfIaC & GitOps in a Nutshell - a FridayInANuthshell Episode.pdf
IaC & GitOps in a Nutshell - a FridayInANuthshell Episode.pdf
 
activity_diagram_combine_v4_20190827.pdfactivity_diagram_combine_v4_20190827.pdf
activity_diagram_combine_v4_20190827.pdfactivity_diagram_combine_v4_20190827.pdfactivity_diagram_combine_v4_20190827.pdfactivity_diagram_combine_v4_20190827.pdf
activity_diagram_combine_v4_20190827.pdfactivity_diagram_combine_v4_20190827.pdf
 
Designing A Time bound resource download URL
Designing A Time bound resource download URLDesigning A Time bound resource download URL
Designing A Time bound resource download URL
 
Connector Corner: Extending LLM automation use cases with UiPath GenAI connec...
Connector Corner: Extending LLM automation use cases with UiPath GenAI connec...Connector Corner: Extending LLM automation use cases with UiPath GenAI connec...
Connector Corner: Extending LLM automation use cases with UiPath GenAI connec...
 
Igniting Next Level Productivity with AI-Infused Data Integration Workflows
Igniting Next Level Productivity with AI-Infused Data Integration WorkflowsIgniting Next Level Productivity with AI-Infused Data Integration Workflows
Igniting Next Level Productivity with AI-Infused Data Integration Workflows
 
UiPath Studio Web workshop series - Day 7
UiPath Studio Web workshop series - Day 7UiPath Studio Web workshop series - Day 7
UiPath Studio Web workshop series - Day 7
 
Linked Data in Production: Moving Beyond Ontologies
Linked Data in Production: Moving Beyond OntologiesLinked Data in Production: Moving Beyond Ontologies
Linked Data in Production: Moving Beyond Ontologies
 
Computer 10: Lesson 10 - Online Crimes and Hazards
Computer 10: Lesson 10 - Online Crimes and HazardsComputer 10: Lesson 10 - Online Crimes and Hazards
Computer 10: Lesson 10 - Online Crimes and Hazards
 
Building AI-Driven Apps Using Semantic Kernel.pptx
Building AI-Driven Apps Using Semantic Kernel.pptxBuilding AI-Driven Apps Using Semantic Kernel.pptx
Building AI-Driven Apps Using Semantic Kernel.pptx
 
Building Your Own AI Instance (TBLC AI )
Building Your Own AI Instance (TBLC AI )Building Your Own AI Instance (TBLC AI )
Building Your Own AI Instance (TBLC AI )
 
20230104 - machine vision
20230104 - machine vision20230104 - machine vision
20230104 - machine vision
 
Salesforce Miami User Group Event - 1st Quarter 2024
Salesforce Miami User Group Event - 1st Quarter 2024Salesforce Miami User Group Event - 1st Quarter 2024
Salesforce Miami User Group Event - 1st Quarter 2024
 
UiPath Platform: The Backend Engine Powering Your Automation - Session 1
UiPath Platform: The Backend Engine Powering Your Automation - Session 1UiPath Platform: The Backend Engine Powering Your Automation - Session 1
UiPath Platform: The Backend Engine Powering Your Automation - Session 1
 
Comparing Sidecar-less Service Mesh from Cilium and Istio
Comparing Sidecar-less Service Mesh from Cilium and IstioComparing Sidecar-less Service Mesh from Cilium and Istio
Comparing Sidecar-less Service Mesh from Cilium and Istio
 
Bird eye's view on Camunda open source ecosystem
Bird eye's view on Camunda open source ecosystemBird eye's view on Camunda open source ecosystem
Bird eye's view on Camunda open source ecosystem
 
Apres-Cyber - The Data Dilemma: Bridging Offensive Operations and Machine Lea...
Apres-Cyber - The Data Dilemma: Bridging Offensive Operations and Machine Lea...Apres-Cyber - The Data Dilemma: Bridging Offensive Operations and Machine Lea...
Apres-Cyber - The Data Dilemma: Bridging Offensive Operations and Machine Lea...
 

Farmers’ perception of the impact of land degradation and soil and water conservation measures in west harerghe zone of oromia national regional state, ethiopia.

  • 1. Journal of Biology, Agriculture and Healthcare www.iiste.org ISSN 2224-3208 (Paper) ISSN 2225-093X (Online) Vol.3, No.11, 2013 12 Farmers’ Perception of the Impact of Land Degradation and Soil and Water Conservation Measures in West Harerghe Zone of Oromia National Regional State, Ethiopia. Yenealem Kassa*1 , Fekadu Beyene1 , Jema Haji2 , Belaineh Legesse2 1. Department of Rural Development and Agricultural Extension, Haramaya University, P.O. box 138, Dire Dawa, Ethiopia. 2. Department of Agricultural Economics, Haramaya University, P.O. box 138, Dire Dawa, Ethiopia. * Email of the corresponding author: yenealemkassa@yahoo.co.uk Abstract This study was conducted to assess the farmers’ perception of the impact of land degradation and its’ conservation measures on crop productivity and income in West Harerghe Zone of Oromia National Regional State, Ethiopia. The study was based on the data obtained from 398 sample households using pre-tested structured interview schedule. The data were analyzed using simple descriptive statistics with the appropriate statistical tests. The result of the analysis revealed that out of the total sampled households, 82.7 percent were perceptive about the problem of soil erosion and majority of these households (54.5 percent) perceived erosion on their land as severe. The perceived fertility decline on their farm was, 28.1 percent less severe, 57.9 percent sever and 13.9 percent very severe. More than 55 percent of sampled respondents also believe that the impact of land degradation on yield/productivity decline of their lands was severe. Likewise, majority (98.9 percent) of the total households were perceptive about the impact of soil and water conservation in improving soil fertility and yield/production. However, significant proportion farmers who perceived the impact of land degradation and the conservation measures on crop productivity and income were using traditional measures. Therefore, to encourage adoption of improved conservation measures extension, institutional support programs and projects which promote soil and water conservation technologies should have strategies which focus on enhancing the willingness of farm households. Keywords: Land degradation, soil and water conservation, perception, Ethiopia 1. Introduction Land degradation due to soil erosion and nutrient depletion is considered as one of the main problems constraining the development of the agricultural sector in Ethiopia (Kirubel and Gebreyesus, 2011). Land degradation is manifested mainly in the form of land where the soil layer has been eroded away and nutrients have been continuously extracted with little or no any replenishment. The problem is particularly severe on cultivated marginal and sloping land because such areas are generally susceptible to soil erosion (Million and Belay, 2004). This has significantly contributed to the hunger faced by some five to seven million people in the country, thereby requiring external assistance every year for their survival and more than 45 percent of the total population to toil below the absolute poverty line (Gete et al., 2006). Given the continued degradation of natural resource and the very high population growth rate, the opportunity to increase production through area expansion is very limited in the country. The greatest potential for increasing agricultural productivity is likely to come from improved land management practices and efficient application of improved agricultural inputs (Kidane, 2001; Assefa, 2009). In pursuit of this, Ethiopia has been in continuous struggle to increase agricultural production through sustainable use of natural resources during the last four decades (Bekele et al., 2009). However, farmers may practice different conservation measures depending on their degree of perception of the problem of land degradation and awareness of the conservation measures available around them (Shiferaw and Bantilan, 2004). Thus, understanding farmers’ perception of the impacts of land degradation and the conservation measures help to provide specific policy recommendations for designing appropriate conservation strategies of land management. Therefore, this study aims to assess farmers’ perception on problem of land degradation (i.e., soil erosion and decline in soil fertility) and its’ conservation measures on crop productivity and household income in West Harerghe Zone of Oromia National Regional State. 2. Research Methodology 2.1. Description of the Study Area West Harerge Zone is one of the 17 Zones in Oromia National Regional State, geographically located between 70 32’ - 90 47’N latitude and 410 24’ - 430 48’E longitudes (between 70 52’ 15’’ - 9028’43’’ North latitude and 400 03’ 33’’ - 40034’13’’ East longitudes. The capital town of the Zone is Chiro, which is located at a distance of 326 km East of Addis Ababa. The area coverage of the Zone is 1,723,145ha (17,231km2), comprising of 14
  • 2. Journal of Biology, Agriculture and Healthcare www.iiste.org ISSN 2224-3208 (Paper) ISSN 2225-093X (Online) Vol.3, No.11, 2013 13 districts with a combined population of 1,871,706, of whom 912,845 are women. While 160,895 or 9.36% are urban inhabitants, a further 10,567 or 0.56% are pastoralists (ZBOFED, 2012). West Harerghe is subdivided in to three major climatic zones known to be Temperate tropical highland locally known as dega (12.49%), Semi- temperate/Tropical rainy mid land or woinadega (38%), and Semi-arid/Tropical dry or kola (49.5%). The topography of the zone is characterized by steep slopes in the highlands and mid-highlands and large plains in the lowland areas. The ecological zones are set based on the differences in altitude variation ranging between 500 up to 3500 meters above sea level kola (500 - 1500 m a.s.l), woinadega (1500 - 2300 m a.s.l) and dega (2300 - 3500 m a.s.l). The mean monthly minimum temperature ranging from 160 C to 200 C, while the mean maximum is 240 C to 280 C. Rainfall is dispersed throughout the year into two rainy seasons belg rains falling in February-April and meher or main season rains fall from June-September with small showers in dry months. Annual rainfall averages range from below 700 mm for the lower kolla to nearly 1,200 mm for the higher elevations of woinadega and dega areas. The rainfall is variable from year to year both in terms of intensity and distribution during the growing seasons causing a wide range of climatic hazards (PEDBRSO, 2010). 2.2. ampling Procedure Multi-stage stratified random sampling technique was followed to select PAs and households proportionally for the study. Considering the objective of the study and representativeness of the sample, 18 kebeles were selected from three randomly drawn Districts (Messela, Oda Bultum and Daro Lebu). As sever degradation and huge investment in its’ conservation measures were undertaken in high-and mid-altitude areas, the selected kebeles are found in the two agro-climatic zones. To give equal chance in selection of the study units from each concerned woredas, probability proportional to size (PPS) was applied. Again PPS was used to draw sampling units proportionally from each kebele administration of the three woredas. Consequently, the total sample size, 398 households were randomly drawn from the eighteen kebeles using simple random sampling procedure via sampling frame. 2.3. Data Analysis Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics. Mean and proportion comparison methods (independent sample t-test and χ2 test), respectively were used to test whether there is significant difference between adopters and non-adopters in terms of the selected variables. 3. Results and Discussion 3.1. Demographic and socio-economic characteristics of the respondents Of the total sampled households, only 23 (5.8 percent) were female headed. The mean age of the sample household heads was 43.27 with the minimum and maximum ages of 21 and 75 years. Significant proportions (50.5 percent) of the household heads were not able to read and write, while 11 percent could read and write but were without formal education. However, 31.3 percent of the respondents had primary school education or have joined the former illiteracy campaign; while 6.3 percent had secondary school education. The mean family size of the total sample respondents was 7.03 persons ranging from 1 to 17, which is higher than the national average of 5 persons (CSA, 2007). This implies that, the farmers had a large family size in the area, which could reduce the demand for hired labour as members of the farm families could carry out some of the farming and non farming activities. The average farm size of the sample households was found to be 0.98 hectares ranging between 0.06 and 3.45 hectares. This shows that they are small scale farmers, which is a typical feature of rural farmers in Ethiopia. Of the total land size, about 0.73 hectare on average was cultivated and covered with annual and perennial crops. This figure is by far below the national average of 1.53 ha (CSA, 2007). The total livestock holding measured in terms of TLU was found to be 2.09. This is relatively large number in this crop-livestock mixed farming system where land holdings are very small and grazing areas are continuously converted into crop land. According to the information obtained from focus group discussions, because of serious shortage of land, most of the farmers are using zero grazing and the productive and reproductive performance of animals has been declining due to shortage of feed resources, particularly in dry seasons. The average numbers of oxen owned were 0.9. This indicates farmers on average have less than a pair of oxen required for farm operation. Sales of crops, livestock, and off-farm activities are important sources of cash income in the study areas. However, sales of crops constitute 84.82 percent and 83.01 percent of the total income for adopters and non- adopters, respectively. In 2011/2012 production season, the net crop and livestock income of the adopters was birr 17984.62 and birr 1418.91, while that of the non-adopters was birr 13077.64, and birr 765.39, respectively. 3.2. Major soil and water conservation measures in the study area As in the other parts of the country, in the study area different types of traditional conservation measures are old age practices developed through gradual, but dynamic processes across generations. Subsequently, at the time of the survey, 98.5 percent of the non-adopters were using traditional measures to reduce runoff speed and for the purpose of water harvesting and soil conservation. Traditional earth bunds (86 percent), stone bund (16.3
  • 3. Journal of Biology, Agriculture and Healthcare www.iiste.org ISSN 2224-3208 (Paper) ISSN 2225-093X (Online) Vol.3, No.11, 2013 14 percent), water way (97.1 percent), tied ridges, (4.7 percent) and stone check-dam (1.4 percent) were the major traditional measures used by the same households. These figures are good indications of how conservation practices are important in the farming system of the area. The most widely and intensively used improved soil and water conservation practices were fanyajuu, cut off drains, soil bund, stone bund, check-dam and farm forestry. As well, majority (97.8 percent) of these households adopted grass strip, mostly with soil and stone bunds and 58.5 percent of them planted different trees on their farm. From the users of the technologies, only 33.9 percent were using a single conservation strategy, while 121 (66.1 percent) used combinations of two, three and more conservation strategies on their plots. From the field observations through transect walk, the researcher also learned that despite the presence of technical standards for the construction of improved structures there were variability among farms constructed on similar slope gradients in terms of height, width and spacing. In addition, the quality of structures constructed by food for work (FFW) was relatively low and the farmers were expected to invest on it for maintenance. Ttraditional and improved measures have also similar characteristics in terms of purpose and material required for implementation. Both are practiced for the purpose of soil trapping and water harvesting. However, they are different in durability, duration, labour source for construction and time of construction (Wagayehu, 2006). The sampled respondents also indicated that they used conservation measures in their farm for the purpose of conserving soil (6.2 percent), conserving water (3.8 percent) and for both purposes (90.3 percent). These attributes of the conservation measures are also considered as one of the factors influencing farmers’ adoption decision. In view of this, farmers were asked about the problems associated with the major improved conservation strategies of land management practices. All respondents agreed that improved conservation measures are more effective than the traditional ones but require more labour, frequent maintenance, reductions of farm size and difficulty to turn oxen (Table 2). The output of the focus group discussions with different groups of farmers also confirmed that comparing with their relative advantages; the problems of stone bund and check-dam are tolerable (labour intensive and maintenances requirement). As to the farmers, stone bunds and check-dam are suitable to reduce surface runoff velocity and maintain eroded sediments by retaining soil, and thereby make possible cultivation of fallow and virgin land. Whereas the problems related to soil buds (ineffectiveness in reducing soil erosion, space it occupies and difficulty for farm operation) are intolerable. This shows how farmers give different weight for each problem so as to make choices among the practices. To maintain the fertility of their farm, 95.2 percent and 61.9 percent of the sampled households also used intercropping and crop rotation, respectively. Moreover, 47 percent and 78.4 percent of the total sampled households used organic manure and chemical fertilizer for a similar purpose. The average application of chemical fertilizer of program and non-program households at the time of the survey were 191.85 Kg/ha and 160.62 Kg/ha, respectively. The results show that there was no significant difference between the two groups in the mean application of both chemical and natural fertilizers during the same year. 3.3. Farmers’ perception of the impacts of land degradation and its’ conservation measures on crop productivity and income The survey result shows that higher proportions (82.7 percent) of the sampled households were aware of about the problem of soil erosion and majority of these households (54.5 percent) perceived erosion on their land as severe. The sampled households’ responses about the rate of soil erosion in their area for the last ten years based on their knowledge showed that, 37.1 percent erosion is happening very rapidly, 11.9 percent moderately and 51 percent slowly. They were also asked when erosion becomes severe in their area. Accordingly, 19.6 percent reported that severe erosion was started 20 years and before, 24.4 percent as 15-20 years, 29.3 percent as 6-14 years and the rest 25.4 percent as the last 5 years, 1.3 percent reported that there is no erosion at all. Farmers were also asked to judge the fertility status of their farmlands and the result indicated only 7.9 percent of farmers perceived their lands to be high in fertility, 21.6 percent judged the fertility status to be medium, another 62.4 percent said their lands were low in fertility, and the remaining 8.1 percent said their lands were poor in fertility. The analysis response of farm households on the severity of fertility decline on their farm shows, 28.1 percent perceived less severe, 57.9 percent sever and 13.9 percent very severe problem in fertility decline. Of the total respondents, 49.5 percent and 22.5 percent using traditional measures were those with medium and high perception on land degradation (soil erosion and soil fertility decline), respectively. This indicates that perceiving problems of land degradation not always guaranteed for the use of improved soil and water conservation measures in the study area. Rather, other factors which affect their decision should come into play. Farmers were asked whether some of their practices are causing damage on their own farm or not. A significant proportion (57.8 percent of sample households, 30.7 percent of the adopters and 69.3 percent of the non-adopters) did not realize that some of their practices cause damage to their own farm plots and relate cause of soil erosion to run off (45.2 percent), excess rain fall (28.1 percent) (Table 5). They were also interviewed regarding their practice that cause damage to down slope land users plots, again majority of sample respondents (62.7 percent) reported they did not understand some of their farming practices contributes to the occurrence of soil erosion to
  • 4. Journal of Biology, Agriculture and Healthcare www.iiste.org ISSN 2224-3208 (Paper) ISSN 2225-093X (Online) Vol.3, No.11, 2013 15 down slope land users’ plots. Such views agree with the result of Woldeamlak (2003) in the North Western highland of Ethiopia and Kidane (2008) in South Wello, Ethiopia. This implies that still farmers fail to understand their contribution to soil erosion, which may need extension intervention to improve their understanding regarding causes of erosion. The result of different focus group discussions conducted with different members of people in the area also confirmed for the same. Concerning the perception of farmers to the causes of soil fertility decline on their farms, the respondents ranked soil erosion (43.9), lack of bunds (34.2), limited use of manure (11.1), age of land due to repeated cultivation (7.3), shortage of fallowing (1.2) and limited use of fertilizer (0.5) as the first reason for the decline of soil fertility. This shows how farmers in the study area associate soil fertility decline with soil erosion and absence of buds on farm plots, which is probably an opportunity to promote conservation strategies. With the intention of understanding the community perception on the impacts of land degradation, the respondents were asked to mention the major consequences of degradation that they faced. Accordingly, 89.4 percent of the households suggested that land degradation bring productivity decline, 10.61 percent reported it decreases the soil depth, color and changed the type of crops grown, 16.06 percent claimed it exposed stone rocks, deteriorate water holding capacity and made land preparation difficult, and for 44.55 percent of them, it results gully and sandy soil formation which reduced farm size. Of all the identified consequences, the worst that the farmers faced was soil productivity decline. More than 55 percent of sampled households also believe that the impact of land degradation on yield/productivity decline of their lands was severe. Comparing with the non- adopters, the severity of degradation and its’ impact on yield was better recognized among the adopters; where over 63.4 percent of them have very bad erosion which caused significant yield reduction (Table 4). The findings of Woldeamlak (2003) and Seid (2009) also indicated that understanding and recognition of soil erosion as a problem on own farm and its cause and impact on crop yields is the first step towards searching for and adoption of remedial measures. Based on their perception, the soil and water conservation adopters were also asked to suggest their views about the importance of soil and water conservation measures. Thus, 62.7 percent of them suggested that soil and water conservation technologies are extremely important, 31.2 percent very important, 5.8 percent somewhat important, 0.9 percent not very important. This finding on farmers' perception analysis also showed that more percentage (98.9 percent) of the total households were perceptive about the impact of soil and water conservation in improving soil fertility and yield/production. One of the reasons behind fewer numbers (0.9 percent) of household perceptions on soil and water conservation is believed to be inaccessibly of information on the extent of the severity of the problem at large. Regarding the effectiveness of conservation structures, 82.9 percent of the interviewee confirmed that the currently adopted conservation technologies with the support of different projects are by far effective than the previous innervations with different approaches. At the suggested level of perception on the importance of conservation measures, majority (91 percent) of the households strongly agreed that both the community and government bodies should be responsible for conservation activities, 4.55 percent strongly agree that it should be by only landowners, and the rest 2.12 percent strongly agree that it should be only by the government. In line with this, 73 percent of the sample respondents argued that to make the intervention sustainable, farmers should not be paid for construction of soil and water conservation practices on their farms. Majority of the respondents (95.6 percent) also mentioned farmers should be responsible for maintenances of the physical conservation measures which are constructed either in PSNP or by farmers themselves on farm land. As to the respondents’ view, farmers should be paid or supported on farms or plots where constructions of bunds are difficult for individual households (especially land between valleys). 4. Conclusion and policy implication Farmers have their own perception in evaluating the problem, causes and consequence of land degradation (soil erosion and soil fertility decline). However, regardless of farmers’ perception on the impact of land degradation, its influence on use of improved measures was not significant as anticipated. Significant proportion farmers who perceived the impact of land degradation and its’ conservation measures on crop productivity and income were not using any of the practices or were using traditional measures. This might be due to the failure of the interventions to notice inter-household variations (age, education etc.), or it may also be related with lack of willingness of farmers to use the improved land management technologies. Hence, such interventions should consider heterogeneity in the above factors in the design and promotion of the conservation practices. Moreover, to encourage adoption of improved conservation measures extension, institutional support programs and projects which promote soil and water conservation technologies should have strategies which focus on enhancing the willingness of farm households.
  • 5. Journal of Biology, Agriculture and Healthcare www.iiste.org ISSN 2224-3208 (Paper) ISSN 2225-093X (Online) Vol.3, No.11, 2013 16 Acknowledgement The authors would like to thank to Haramaya University for providing financial support for this research through a fund procure from Sweden Government (Sida/ SAREC project). References Assefa D. 2009. Assessment of Upland Erosion Processes and Farmer’s Perception of Land Conservation in Debre-Mewi Watershed, Near Lake Tana, Ethiopia. A Thesis Presented to the Faculty of Graduate School of Cornell University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Masters of Professional Studies.104p. Bekele S, Okello J, Ratna VR. 2009. Adoption and Adaptation of Natural Resource Management Innovations in Smallholder Agriculture: Reflections on Key Lessons and Best Practices. Environment, Development and Sustainability, 11: 601-619. Gete Z, Menale K, Pender J, Mahmud Y. 2006. Stakeholder Analysis for Sustainable Land Management (SLM) in Ethiopia: Assessment of Opportunities, Strategic Constraints, Information Needs, and Knowledge Gaps. Environmental Economics Policy Forum. 97p. Kidane G. 2001. Factors Influencing the Adoption of New Wheat Verities, in Tigray, Ethiopia: the Case of Hawizen District. An MSc Thesis Presented to the School of Graduate Studies of Alemaya University.164p. Kidane T. 2008. Determinants of Physical Soil and Water Conservation Practices: The Case of Bati District, Oromyia Zone, Amhara Reion, Ethiopia. M.Sc. Thesis Presented to the School of Graduates of Alemaya University, Alemaya. 162p. Kirubel M, Gebreyesus B. 2011. Impact assessment of soil and water conservation measures at Medego watershed in Tigray, northern Ethiopia. Maejo International Journal of Science and Technology. 5(03): 312-330. Million T, Belay K. 2004. Factors influencing adoption of soil conservation measures in southern Ethiopia: The Case of Gununo Area. Journal of Agriculture and Rural Development in the Tropics and Subtropics, 105 (1): 49- 62 PEDBRSO (Planning and Economic Development Bureau of the Regional State of Oromia), 2010. Zonal Atlas of West Harerghe Zone. 112p. Seid H. 2009. Determinants of Physical Soil and Water Conservation Practices: The Case of Bati District, Oromyia Zone, Amhara Reion, Ethiopia. M.Sc. Thesis Presented to the School of Graduates of Alemaya University, Alemaya. 162p. Shiferaw B, Bantilan C. 2004. Rural Poverty and Natural Resource Management in Less-favored Areas: Revisiting Challenges and Conceptual Issues. Journal of Food, Agriculture and Environment, 2(1): 328-339. Woldeamlak B, Sterk G. 2003. Farmers’ Participation in Soil and Water Conservation Activities in Chemoga Watershed, Blue Nile Basin, Ethiopia. Land Degradation and Development. Journal of Agricultural Economics, 13: 189- 200. WHZBOFED (West Harerghe Zone Finance and Economic Development Office), 2007. Annual Report Table 1. Household income (in ETB) Income type Total sample Adopters Non-adopters t-value Mean STD Mean STD Mean STD Age 43.27 10.47 44.74 9.70 42.03 10.95 2.59** Farm experience 21.48 9.55 23.95 8.98 20.05 9.68 4.14*** Family size 7.03 2.80 7.32 2.79 6.78 2.79 1.95* Land size 0.98 0.57 1.07 0.65 0.89 0.46 3.04*** Livestock (TLU) 2.09 2.06 2.81 2.24 1.49 1.66 6.57*** Net crop income 15309.2 5956.6 17984.6 6764.3 13077.6 4010.5 3.35*** Net livestock income 1062.6 1036.1 1418.9 1134.4 765.4 840.0 6.33*** Off/non-farm income 1859.7 3503.3 1798.6 7403.5 1910.6 3108.2 -0.31 Net household income 18231.5 7673.5 21202.1 8623.7 15753.7 5717.9 7.170*** Source: Computed from survey data *** means significant at the 1% probability level
  • 6. Journal of Biology, Agriculture and Healthcare www.iiste.org ISSN 2224-3208 (Paper) ISSN 2225-093X (Online) Vol.3, No.11, 2013 17 Table 2. Improved soil and water conservation practices used by adopters SWC technologies N (%) Grass strip 179(97.8%) Cut off drain 112(61.2%) Soil bund 130(71.0%) Fanyajuu 89(48.6%) Stone bund 99(53.5%) Check-dam 13(7.1%) Farm forestry (in number) 107(58.5%) Integrated SWC - Note that there are multiple response Source: Computed from survey data Table 3. Farmers’ response to problems associated with conservation measures Problems of SWC Improved SWCPs Traditional SWCPs Soil bund fanya juu Stone bund Check dam Earth bund Stone bund Labour intensive 42.7 62.8 87.9 97.1 4.7 17.6 Requires frequent maintenance 72.9 49.5 57.8 58.4 21.9 86.9 Difficult to implement 12.6 17.6 29.4 29.4 - 3.3 Take land out of production 72.9 9.5 13.8 12.6 37.6 3.4 Difficult to turn oxen 55.3 18.8 29.4 17.6 11.6 1.3 Increases rodent and pest incidence 5.0 16.3 16.9 17.1 35.9 7.4 Not effective to reduce soil erosion 29.4 2.5 3.3 1.3 31.3 55.5 Note that there are multiple responses Source: Computed from survey data Table 4. Farmers’ perceptions about the impact of land degradation and SWC Source: Computed from survey data *** and ** means significant at the 1% and 5% probability levels, respectively Variables Total sample (N=398) Adopters (N=183) Non- adopters (N=215) χ2 N % N % N % Perception of the severity of soil erosion Severe 217 54.5 103 56.3 114 53.0 Moderate 112 28.1 59 32.1 53 24.7 11.150** Low 64 16.1 21 11.5 43 20.0 No erosion 5 1.3 - - 5 2.3 Perception of soil fertility decline Very severe 110 13.9 69 17.4 41 10.5 Severe 456 57.9 225 56.8 231 59.1 8.482** Less severe 221 28.1 102 25.8 119 30.4 Perceived impacts of land degradation on land production Severe 221 55.5 116 63.4 105 48.8 Moderate 135 33.9 54 29.5 81 37.7 Low Effect 29 7.3 12 6.6 17 7.9 32.296*** No Effect 13 3.3 1 0.5 12 5.6
  • 7. Journal of Biology, Agriculture and Healthcare www.iiste.org ISSN 2224-3208 (Paper) ISSN 2225-093X (Online) Vol.3, No.11, 2013 18 Table 5. Farmers’ perceptions of causes of soil erosion and decline of soil fertility Causes % Responses number (398) 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th Cases of soil erosion Excessive rainfall 28.1 20.6 16.9 19.4 15 Cultivation of steep slopes 11.9 16.3 17.3 31.6 22.9 Over cultivation 12.5 10.6 1.95 31.6 25.8 Poor agricultural practices 6.3 35 25 2.5 31.2 Runoff 45.2 25.4 17.3 9.8 2.3 Reasons of soil fertility decline Limited use of fertilizer 0.5 1.2 7.5 12.6 78.2 Limited use of manure 11.1 30.1 17.6 7.3 33.7 Soil erosion 43.9 27.1 16.3 9.8 2.8 Lack of bund 34.2 11.9 25.4 17.6 10.8 Absence of fallowing 1.2 3.0 7.3 11.1 77.4 Age of land due to repeated cultivation 7.3 16.3 17.6 27.1 31.7 Source: Computed from survey data Fig. 1. Map of Ethiopia and West Harerghe Zone
  • 8. This academic article was published by The International Institute for Science, Technology and Education (IISTE). The IISTE is a pioneer in the Open Access Publishing service based in the U.S. and Europe. The aim of the institute is Accelerating Global Knowledge Sharing. More information about the publisher can be found in the IISTE’s homepage: http://www.iiste.org CALL FOR JOURNAL PAPERS The IISTE is currently hosting more than 30 peer-reviewed academic journals and collaborating with academic institutions around the world. There’s no deadline for submission. Prospective authors of IISTE journals can find the submission instruction on the following page: http://www.iiste.org/journals/ The IISTE editorial team promises to the review and publish all the qualified submissions in a fast manner. All the journals articles are available online to the readers all over the world without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. Printed version of the journals is also available upon request of readers and authors. MORE RESOURCES Book publication information: http://www.iiste.org/book/ Recent conferences: http://www.iiste.org/conference/ IISTE Knowledge Sharing Partners EBSCO, Index Copernicus, Ulrich's Periodicals Directory, JournalTOCS, PKP Open Archives Harvester, Bielefeld Academic Search Engine, Elektronische Zeitschriftenbibliothek EZB, Open J-Gate, OCLC WorldCat, Universe Digtial Library , NewJour, Google Scholar