It is important to know what a bilingual is made of.

3. Bilingualism

4. Speaker is
fluent in
2 languages
Exposed to 2
languages
from birth

5. Bilingualism
• If a speaker is fluent in two languages, then
they are said to be bilingual.
• The commonly held image of a bilingual
person is of someone brought up in a culture
where they are exposed to two languages
from birth.
• It is not necessary for them to be equally
fluent in both languages, but at least they
should be very competent in the second one.

6. Bilingualism
productive receptive

7. Some authorities (Bialystock, 2001)
distinguish the following:
1. Productive Bilingualism – speakers can
produce and understand both
languages.
2. Receptive Bilingualism – Speakers can
understand both languages but have
more limited production abilities.

8. Categories of Bilingualism

9. Categories of Bilingualism
• 1. Simultaneous Bilingualism – L1
and L2 learned about the same time
• 2. Early Sequential Bilingualism – L1
learned first, but L2 learned
relatively early, in childhood

10. • Early Sequential Bilinguals form the
largest group world-wide and the
number is increasing, particular in
countries with large immigration rates.
• 3. Late Bilingualism – L2 learned in
adolescence onwards

11. FACT: One of the Earliest Detailed Studies of
Bilingualism: Diary Study of Leopold (1939 - 1949)
• Leopold was a German linguist, whose
daughter Hildegard had an American
mother and lived from an early age in
the USA.
• German was used in the home at first,
but this soon gave way to English, the
environment language.

12. • The diary showed that young
children can quickly (within 6
months) forget the old language and
pick up a new one, if they move to
another country.
• Initially the two languages are mixed
up, but differentiation quickly
emerges.

13. • We observe language mixing when
words combine, such an English
suffix added to a Filipino root, or
English words put into a Filipino
syntactic structure, or responding to
questions in one language with
answers in another.

14. Language Mixing
• Switching from one language to another is
termed as a crutch syndrome.
• A bilingual who is stumped in one language
can keep on speaking by depending on a
translated complete utterance, or word or
phrase as a stand-by.
• It is divided into two: code-switching and
code-mixing, in that order.

15. Language Mixing
• In a more nuanced definition where code-
switching involves inserting whole
utterances – inter-sententially – in a second,
non-dominant language during conversa-tion,
while the more specific term of code-mixing
(or borrowing) involves the blending of non-
dominant language words or phrases within
an utterance – intra-sententially.

16. Language Mixing
• Using this definition, and presuming that
English is the dominant language in the
following utterances:
• ‘Is this what we are having for dinner
today? Sira naba tuktok mo? [Are you
crazy?] It’s not Saturday and I don’t eat
tuyo [smoked/dried fish] except on
Saturdays. It just doesn’t seem right!’

17. Language Mixing
• The first italicized utterance is a
code-switch, while the second
italicized word in the next utterance
is a code-mix.
• Some say that this crutch syndrome
is a model of incompetence.

18. Language Processing

19. Separate-Store Models
• There are separate lexicons for each
language.
• These are connected at the semantic
level (Potter, So, von Eckardt @ Feldman,
1984).

20. • Evidence for the separate-store model comes
from the finding that the amount of
facilitation gained by repeating a word (a
technique called repetition priming: or
facilitatory – priming by repeating a stimulus)
is much greater and longer lasting within than
between languages (Kirsner, Smith, Lockhart,
King & Jain, 1984), although repetition
priming might not be tapping semantic
processes (Scarborough, Gerard & Cortese,
1984).

21. Common-Store Models
• There is just one lexicon and one
semantic memory system, with words
from both languages stored in it and
connected directly together (Paivio, Clark
& Lamber, 1988).
• This model is supported by evidence that
semantic priming produces facilitation
between languages.

22. • Studies that minimize the role of
attentional processing and
participants’ strategies, and that
maximize automatic processing
suggest that equivalent words share
an underlying semantic
representation that can mediate
priming the words.

23. Cognates
• Cognates are words in different
languages that have the same
root and meaning and which look
similar.
• This is the mixture of separate-
store and common-store models.

24. • For example, concrete words and culturally
similar words act as though they are stored in
common, whereas abstract and other words
act as though they are stored in separate
stores.
• Also steering between the common- and
separate-stores modes, Grosjean and Soares
(1986) argued that the language system is
flexible in a bilingual speaker, and that its
behavior depends on the circumstances.

25. Syntactic Processing
Shared Syntax

26. Bilingual Syntactic Processing
• A study of Spanish-English bilingual
speakers found that a particular syntactic
structure in one language could make it
easier to use the same structure in the
second language, supporting the “shared
syntax” idea (Hartsuiker, Pickering &
Vetkamp, 2004).

27. • Similarly, Loebell and Bock (2003)
found that production of German
datives primed the subsequent use
of English datives, and vice versa.
Similar results have been found in
Dutch-English bilinguals (Salamoura
& Williams, 2006).

28. Interlanguage

31. Transfer

32. Moving Between
Languages
• How do we translate between two
languages? As we might remember
from school, or from our last foreign
holiday, translating a foreign
language can be fraught with
difficulties.

33. Kroll and Stewart (1994) proposed the
following:
• 1. Forward Translation – They argued
that we can translate words from our
first language to second language by
conceptual mediation (or forward
translation). This means that we must
access the meaning of a word in order
to translate it.

34. • 2. Backward Translation – In
contrast, we translate from the
second language into the first by
word association (or backward
translation) – that is, we use direct
links between items in the lexicon.

37. Salamat!

40. Remember!
There are probably both
costs and benefits of
learning two languages
at once.

41. Remember!
L2 acquisition in
adulthood and later
childhood is difficult
because it is not like L1
acquisition.

42. Remember!
There has been much
debate as to how we
translate words
between languages.

43. Remember!
Translation probably
does involve conceptual
mediation.

44. Remember!
Bilingualism is a useful
tool for studying other
language processes.

46. References
• Books/Journals:
• Bialystok, E. & Hakuta, K. (1994). In Other Words: The Science
and Psychology of Second Language Acquisition. New York:
Basic Books
• Crystal, D. (1997). The Cambridge Encyclopaedia of Language
(2nded). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Cummins, J. (1991). Interdependence of First- and Second-
Language Proficiency in Bilingual Children. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
• de Klerk, V. (2006). Corpus Linguistics and World Englishes: An
Analysis of Xhosa English. Great Britain: Biddles Ltd.

47. • Grosjean, F. & Soares, C. (1986). Processing Mixed
Language: Some Preliminary Findings. Linguistic
Processing in Bilinguals: Psycholinguistics and
Neuropsychological Perspectives. Hillsdale, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
• Harley, T. A. (2008). The Psychology of Language: From
Data to Theory. UK: Ashford Colour Press Ltd.
• Harley, B. and Wang, W. (1997). The Critical Period
Hypothesis: Where Are We Now. Tutorials in
Bilingualism: Psychololinguistic Perspectives. Mahwah,
NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
• Kirsner, K., Smith, M., Lockhart, R. S., King, M. L. & Jain,
M. (1984). The Bilingual Lexicon: Language Specific
Units in an Integrated Network. Journal of Verbal
Learning and Verbal Behaviour

48. • Magiste, E. (1986). Selected Issues in Second and Third Language
Learning. Linguistic Processing in Bilinguals: Psycholinguistics and
Neuropsychological Perspectives. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates, Inc.
• Nishimura, M. (1986). Intra-sentential Codeswitching: The Case of
Language Assignment. Language Processing in Bilinguals. Hillsdale,
NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
• Paivio, A., Clark, J. M. & Lambert, W. E. (1988). Bilingual Dual-
Coding Theory and Sematic Repetition Effects. Journal of
Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition
• Potter, M. C., So, K. F., von Eckardt, B. & Feldman, L. B. (1984).
Lexical and Conceptual Representation in Beginning and Proficient
Bilinguals. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behaviour
• Scarborough, D. L. Gerard, L. & Cortese, C. (1984). Independence of
Lexical Access in Bilingual Word Recognition. Journal of Verbal
Learning and Verbal Behaviour

49. • Online:
• Grosjean, F. (2012). Can a First Language be Totally Forgotten?
Retrieved, July 17, 2012, from
http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/life-bilingual/201207/can-
first-language-be-totally-forgotten
• PDF:
• An Integrated Neurolinguistic Theory of Bilingualism: 1976-2000
(Michel Paradis, 2009)
• Bilingual/Immersion Education: Indicators Of Good Practice - Final
Report to the Ministry of Education (S. May, R. Hill, S. Tiakiwai,
2004)
• Bilingual Language Processing (Timothy Desmet* and Wouter
Duyck, 2007)
• The Right of the Deaf Child to Grow up Bilingual (François Grosjean)
• The Bilingual Family Newsletter (1990).

50. • From: International Journal of Bilingualism
• Effects of Input on the Early Grammatical
Development of Bilingual Children (Elma Blom, 2010)
• Interpreter-mediated Interaction as Bilingual Speech:
Bridging Macro- and Micro-sociolinguistics in
Codeswitching Research (Philipp Sebastian
Angermeyer, 2010)
• Is it Language Relearning or Language Reacquisition?
Hints from a Young Boy’s Code-switching During His
Journey Back to His Native Language (Tove I. Dahl, Curt
Rice, Marie Steffensen, Ludmila Amundsen, 2010)
• What is the Impact of Age of Second Language
Acquisition on the Production of Consonants and
Vowels Among Childhood Bilinguals? (Andrea A. N.
MacLeod, Carol Stoel-Gammon, 2010)