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Alec Feinberg – DfRSoft 1
Thermodynamic
Reliability
Dr. Alec Feinberg
©2014 ASQ Reliability Division
www.asqrd.org
DfRSoft…
Thermodynamics Reliability
Alec Feinberg, Ph.D.
DfRSoft (www.dfrsoft.com)
support@dfrsoft.com
This Talk is available at: www.dfrsoft.com Select -> Free Publications
On this webpage scroll down to:
For ASQ members the video and the slides are also available at:
http://www.asqrd.org/past-webinars/17
Equations in this talk are incorporated in DfRSoft software described at the website
ASQ Talk Thermodynamic Reliability
Alec Feinberg – DfRSoft
Table of Contents:
 Thermodynamics: a fundamental Science for Physics-of-
failure
 Equilibrium Damage Assessment Method
 Non Equilibrium Damage Assessment Method
 Conclusions
 Appendix Examples
3
Alec Feinberg – DfRSoft
NEW BOOK: Only reference for this
material
The Physics of Degradation in Engineered
Materials and Devices
Editor: Dr Jonathan Swingler, Heriot-Watt
University, England
Major Contributor: Dr Alec Feinberg
Published by: Momentum Press
Due out at the end of this year
6/16/2014
4
Alec Feinberg – DfRSoft
Book Overview:
The Physics of Degradation in Engineered
Materials and Devices
 Chapter 1: Introduction, Dr Jonathan Swingler
 Chapter 2: The History of the Physics of Degradation, Dr Jeffrey Jones,
 Chapter 3: Thermodynamics of Engineering, Prof Michael Bryant
 Chapter 4: Thermodynamic Damage within Physics of
Degradation, Dr Alec Feinberg
 Chapter 5: Monitoring Degradation in the Field., Dr Xiandong Ma,
 Chapter 6: Physics of Degradation in Polymers Electronics, Prof Hari et al
 Chapter 7: Physics of Degradation in Ferroelectric Devices,Prof Paul Weaver
5
Alec Feinberg – DfRSoft
What is Thermodynamic Reliability?
 A relatively new evolving science – now being recognized
at the university level
 It merges thermodynamics with reliability
 It can help
 Understand why materials degrade
 Lead to new ways to make better and more meaningful
measurements
 Help in the making of new materials
 Provide new approaches to solving and detecting degradation
 Can be used at the system and component level
 “To overlook the potential this science has in its ability to
contribute to reliability physics would be a mistake”
6
Alec Feinberg – DfRSoft
Thermodynamics: a fundamental Science for
Physics-of-failure
 Thermodynamics Second Law can be used to
describes aging damage
 Second law in terms of device thermodynamic
damage: The spontaneous irreversible damage
processes that take place in a device interacting
with its environment, do so in order to go towards
thermodynamic equilibrium with its environment.
7
Alec Feinberg – DfRSoft
Examples
 Semiconductor component, steel beam, or a bicycle tire
 Each system interacts with its environment
 The interaction between the system and environment degrade
the system in accordance with our second law
 Degradation is driven by this tendency of the system/device to
come into thermodynamic equilibrium with its environment
 Air in bike tire will deflate, steel beam will rust/corrode,
semiconductor diffusion will start to occur
6/16/2014
8
Alec Feinberg – DfRSoft
Order in the System Decreases Causing
Damage
 Total order of the system plus its environment tends to
decrease
 The spontaneous processes creating disorder are
irreversible
 Air will not go back into the bike tire
 Semiconductor will not spontaneously purify
 Steal beam will continue to corrode
 The original order created in a manufactured product
diminishes in a random manner, and becomes measurable
6/16/2014
9
Alec Feinberg – DfRSoft
Assessing Damage in Equilibrium
Thermodynamics
6/16/2014
10
Thermodynamic state variables define the
equilibrium state of the system
State variables examples:
 temperature, volume, pressure,
energy, entropy, mass, voltage,
current, electric field, vibration
displacements...
Entropy or Free Energy are key
variables to help assess damage
Alec Feinberg – DfRSoft
Damage Causes a Loss of Ability to do
Useful Work
 Disorder is associated with device damage
 Entropy change measures damage
 If entropy does not increase, there is no degradation
 Not all entropy increase causes damage
 Adding or removing heat, increase or decrease entropy. Yet
device damage may not occur
 Heating a transistor does not always cause permanent damage.
We can put air back in the tire but we cannot repair a corroded
steel beam.
6/16/201411
Alec Feinberg – DfRSoft
Entropy Damage
 The entropy generated associated with device
damage, is, “entropy damage”
 Entropy Generated Sgen
 Sgen=DStotal=DSdevice+DSenv ≥ 0
 We can write entropy change in terms of the Non
Damage and Damage?
 DSdevice=DSdamage+DSnon-damage ≥ 0
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12
Alec Feinberg – DfRSoft
Measuring Entropy Damage
6/16/2014
13
 Devise a gentle measurement process “f”, to measure
entropy change in a time period Dt.
 Make an initial measurement at time t1
 DSf(t1)= S(t1 +Dt)-S(t1) time t1
 Expose the device to aging until time t2 then make a 2nd
measurement
 DSf(t2) = S(t2 +Dt)-S(t2), where t2 >>t1
 Entropy damage:
DSf-Damage(t2,t1) =DSf(t2)-DSf(t1) ≥ 0
 Note: Equal to 0 => no Damage
Alec Feinberg – DfRSoft
Measuring Entropy Damage (Cont.)
 We can also look at the aging ratio
Aging Ratio= DSf(t1) /DSf(t2) what is an acceptable
% ??
 Note the measurement process itself should not cause
significant damage compared to aging damage
 Aging stress must be limited to within reason so that we
can repeat our measurement in a consistent manner.
 See Selected Examples
6/16/2014
14
Alec Feinberg – DfRSoft
Complex Systems Entropy Damage
 The total entropy of a system is equal to the sum of the entropies
of the parts. If we isolate an area enclosing the system and its
environment such that no heat, mass flows, or work flows in or
out, then the entropy generated is
 This is an important result for thermodynamic damage. If we
can keep tabs on DSTotal
over time, we can determine if aging is
occurring even in a complex system.
 See Selected Examples
6/16/2014 15

DDDD
N
i
gsSurroundinSysiTotalGen SSSSS
1
0
Alec Feinberg – DfRSoft
Selected Results in Equilibrium
Thermodynamics
16
Alec Feinberg – DfRSoft
Example 1 & 2
 Simple Resistor Aging
 Where Cp-Avg average specific heat of resistor, m=resistor mass, T2 room
temperature
 Time t1:T3 temp. rise when current I1 passes through
 Time t2 (Month Later): T4 temp rise when current I1 passes through it
 Example 2: Complex but similar Resistor Bank to
Ex 1
6/16/2014
17
3
4
12 ),(
T
T
LnmCttS avgpDamage D )()( 2423 TTLnTTLnA ratioAging 
)()( 2423 TTLnTTLnA ratioAging 
Alec Feinberg – DfRSoft
Example 3
 System of similar parts (incompressible constant
volume)
 Where CAvgi average specific heat of parts, mi= mass
6/16/2014
18
))((
1 1
2
1
  
DD
N
i
N
i
iAvgiTotal
T
T
LnCmSS
)()( 1213 TTLnTTLnA ratioAging 
At Initial Time
T1=Initial Temperature of System
T2=T1+Temperature rise of system in operation initially
At a time later when aging has occurred
T1=Initial Temperature of System
T3=T1+Temperature rise of system in operation at later time
Alec Feinberg – DfRSoft
 Prior to a system being subjected to a harsh environment, we make an initial
measurement M1+ at ambient temperature. Then the system is subjected to an
unknown harsh environment. We then return the system to the lab and make a
measurement M2 + in the exact same way that M1 was made. Find the aging
ratio where
 M1: T1=300oK, T2=360oK,
 M2: T1=300oK, T3=400oK
+ Note: In the strict thermodynamic approach M1 and M2 should be made with the system thermally
insulated. However, if we can make a measurement in a repeatable way say with a thermal couple on
a specific surface of interest we should get reasonably accurate results.
58.1)300360()300400(  LnLnA ratioAging
System has aged by a factor of 1.58. We next need to determine what aging
ratio is critical.
Solution:
19
Numeric Example 4
Alec Feinberg – DfRSoft
Example 5
 Noise can be considered a system level state variable
 Noise Degradation of isolated system and environment with system
exhibiting white noise – Thermodynamic entropy analysis results
show noise variance is a key state variable
.
 Where
 At Initial Time
 st-initial=Initial standard deviation of white noise
 At a time later when aging has occurred
 st-final=Final or later time value of the standard deviation of white noise
20
)log(
2
1
)1,2()()( 2
1
2
2
12
t
t
ttDamage ttSXSXSS
s
s
DD
Alec Feinberg – DfRSoft
Numeric Example 6
 Prior to a system being subjected to a harsh environment, we
make an initial measurement M1+ of an engine vibration
(fluctuation) profile. Then the system is subjected to an unknown
harsh environment. We then return the system to the lab and make
a measurement M2 + in the exact same way that M1 was made.
Find the aging ratio where
 M1: Engine exhibits a constant PSD characteristic of 3Grms in the
bandwidth from 10 to 500 Hz
 M2: Engine exhibits a constant PSD characteristic of 5Grms in the
bandwidth from 10 to 500 Hz
System noise damage ratio is then: (note variance=Grms for white noise
47.1)3()5( 22
_  LogLogDamage rationoise
21
Alec Feinberg – DfRSoft
Assessing Damage in Non Equilibrium
Thermodynamic
Equilibrium thermodynamics provides methods for
describing the initial and final equilibrium system
states, without describing the details of how the system
evolves to final state. While, non-equilibrium
thermodynamics describes in more detail what happens
during the evolution to the final equilibrium state.
22
Alec Feinberg – DfRSoft
Assessing Damage in Non Equilibrium
Thermodynamic
 Here we are concerned with the aging path. How does aging
occur over time as opposed to just assessing the system’s state
at any time point.
 We can use the prior method and sample more to trace out an
aging path
 However, using this method, we need to keep track and
measure a number of states throughout the aging process.
 Often we are able to model the
degradation (damage) so we do
not have to make many
measurements.
6/16/2014 23
Aging path
Alec Feinberg – DfRSoft
Conjugate Work & Free Energy
Approach
 The work done on the system by the
environment has the form
 Associated with work causing damage by the
environment on the device is a loss of free
energy F
6/16/2014
24
 
a
X
X
aa dXYWdXYW
2
1
or
Work =(Ffinal -Finitial )
F(x)D
Alec Feinberg – DfRSoft
 Non Equilibrium Thermodynamics Aging State
 Equilibrium Thermodynamics Non Aging State
Entropy definition Free energy definition
Entropy is as large
as possible
Free energy is as
small
as possible
dSTotal
dt
 0
dSTotal
dt
 0
d
dt

 0
d
dt

 0
Damage: Entropy Increases or Free Energy
Decreases
Alec Feinberg – DfRSoft
Conjugate Work Variable
 Some common thermodynamic work systems
6/16/2014
26
Common Systems
W
Generalized force
Y
Generalized Displacement
X
Mechanical Work
W=YdX
Gas Pressure (-P) Volume (V) -P dV
Chemical Chemical Potential (m) Molar number of atoms or
molecules (N)
m dN
Spring Force (f) Distance (x) f dx
Mechanical Wire/Bar Tension (J) Length (L) J dL
Mechanical Strain Stress (s) Strain (e) s de
Electric Polarization Polarization (-p) Electric Field (E) -p dE
Capacitance Voltage (V) Charge (q) V dq
Induction Current (I) Magnetic flux () Id
Magnetic Polarizability Magnetic Intensity (H) Magnetization (M) H dM
Linear System Velocity (v) Momentum (m) v dm
Rotating Fluids Angular velocity (w) Angular momentum (L) wdL
Resistor Voltage (V) Current (I)  dtVI
Alec Feinberg – DfRSoft
Thermodynamic Damage Ratio Method
for Tracking Degradation
 Total work – some work cause damage and some work is due to damage
inefficiencies unrelated to system work damage. In theory we can track the
true damage, the types of damage
 The work damage ratio: This consists of the work performed to the work
needed to cause system failure. In system failure, we exhaust the maximum
amount of useful system work.
 All work found must be taken over the
same work path.
6/16/2014
27
T
m
i
iT
d
m
i
id
W
w
DamageEffectiveand
W
w
Damage
 
 11
Alec Feinberg – DfRSoft
Damage Ratio (Cont.)
 Cyclic damage can be written over n cycles as
 Non cyclic damage
6/16/2014
28
cyclictoworkcyclicTotal
workcyclicPartial
Failure
W
nDamage
nndXY

 
failureforneededworkTotal
workPartial
Failure
W
YdX
Damage 

Same Work Path
Alec Feinberg – DfRSoft
Determining Acceleration Factors Using
Damage Ratio
 When the degradation path is separable for time
 Damage between two different environmental stresses Y1 and Y2, and
failure occurs for each at time t1 and t2 then the damage value of 1
requires that
 Then damage can be written (t2 AF t1)
6/16/2014
29
),,
2
(
),,
1
(
1
2)2,1(1
1
),,
1
(
2
),,
2
(
a
EkYf
a
EkYf
AFor
a
EkYf
a
EkYf
Damage 
t
t
t
t
tEkYfdt
dt
tdX
tYw a
t
t
f
i
),,(
)(
)(  
1
)2,1(),,
2
(
1
),,
1
(
2
),,
2
(
1
),,
1
(
tt AF
a
EkYf
t
a
EkYf
a
EkYf
t
a
EkYf
Damage 
Alec Feinberg – DfRSoft
Selected Results in Non Equilibrium
Thermodynamics
 Ex. 7: Creep (s is mechanical stress , ep strain)
6/16/2014
30
 












i
p
i
i
p
i
i
iAF
tt
Damage
1),1( tt
pM
TT
KE
c
Ba
eAF
1
)1(
2
1
)
11
(/
1
21























s
s
t
t
pMpMP
P tTBdtptBdt
dt
d
dw 111
)( 
  ss
e
ses
Alec Feinberg – DfRSoft
Selected Results in Non Equilibrium
Thermodynamics
 Ex. 8: Mechanical Abrasive Wear (non
temperature stress related)
6/16/2014
31
 












i
i
i i
i
iAF
tt
Damage
1),1( tt
2
2
1
2
1
1
2
1
2
)1,2( 












P
P
A
A
AF


t
t
V=removed volume of the softer material, P=normal load (lbs), L is the sliding distance (feet),
H=hardness of the softer material in psi, wear volume V=AD where A is the area and D is the depth
of the removed. Then writing L= t for two sliding surfaces rubbing against each other at a constant
velocity , t failure time.
HA
tkP
dt
HA
kP
dt
dt
dD
FdxFw
 22
 
Alec Feinberg – DfRSoft
Cyclic Work – How Much Damage/Cycle?
 Cyclic Work cause damage each cycle (Compress-Decompress)
 To estimate the amount of damage we first need to find the total
amount of cyclic work done (i.e. the sum of all the cyclic work
performed for each cycle)
 For stress and strain type cyclic work the total work is given by
 The damage is the ratio
32
 

n
i Areai
Sdew
1
)cycle(
failureforneededworkTotal
cycleperworkSum
Failure
W
n
i
i
Area
Sde
Damage 


 
1
Alec Feinberg – DfRSoft
Fatigue Damage Using Miner’s Rule
 Miner’s rule is a popular approximation for finding damage
 Work W is a function of the cyclic area. Miner’s empirically figured that stress S,
cycles n were the main factors for damage
 In our framework this means W n=W(S, n)
 Miner also empirically assumed that the work for n cycles of the same cyclic size is
all that is needed – in our framework this means
 W n= n W(S) (Miner’s assumption=reality is work is reduced each S cycle)
33
...
)()(...)()( 22112211



FailureFailureFailure W
SWn
W
SWn
W
SWnSWn
Damage
...)
3
(
33
)
2
(
22
)
1
(
11
 SWNSWNSWN
Failure
W

i
i
N
in
N
n
N
n
N
n
SWN
SWn
SWN
SWn
SWN
SWn
Damage ...
3
3
2
2
1
1...
)
3
(
3
)
3
(
3
)
2
(
2
)
2
(
2
)
1
(
1
)
1
(
1
Alec Feinberg – DfRSoft
Example: Miner’s Rule
 Then Miner’s rule can be modified as
 Ni = AF(1, i) N1
6/16/2014
34



k
i NiAF
i
n
NAF
n
NAF
n
N
n
DamageEffective
1 1
),1(
1
)3,1(
3
1
)2,1(
2
1
1
Alec Feinberg – DfRSoft
 Miner’s Rule for Secondary Batteries
 Miner’s rule using the n cyclic sum over the Depth of
Discharge % (DoD%) ith level stress for battery life
pertaining to a certain failure (permanent) voltage drop
(such as 10%) of the initially rated battery voltage and
then the effective damage done in ni DoDs% can be
assessed when Ni is known
for the ith DoD level.
6/16/201435



k
i i
N
i
n
DamageEffective
1
Non Equilibrium Thermodynamics,
Example 9
Alec Feinberg – DfRSoft
Thermally Activated Time-dependent
(TAT) device degradation models
 Arrhenius Aging Due to Small Parametric Change
(due to a changes in the free energy)
36
da
dt
T
ay
KBT
 





( ) exp
1







TK
T
B
o
)0(
exp)(









TK
a
dt
da
B
)(
exp

 ...
2
)0()( 2
2
1  y
a
aya 
where y1 and y2 are given by
2
2
21
)0()0(
a
yand
a
y





For small parametric change we have
Alec Feinberg – DfRSoft
Solving
37
a
P
P
A B t  
D
ln[ ]1
TK
yT
Band
y
TK
A
B
B 1
1
)(

Examples of Ln(1+B time) aging law with (a) similar to primary and secondary
creep stages and (b) similar to primary battery voltage loss. Other key examples
include Type II wear, transistor aging.
Alec Feinberg – DfRSoft
Wear Modeling
 Common wear
types
38
Type I wear model is covered by the well known Archards linear Wear
Model. When logarithmic-in-time aging occurs as is illustrated in Type II
wear shown in the Figure (often observed in metals. Here we apply the
TAT model. This is characterized by an initially high wear rate then, a
steady state low wear rate. Type I shows the case of steady wear in time,
Type III typically observed in lapping and polishing for surface finishing
of ceramics.
Alec Feinberg – DfRSoft
Example 10 : Wear TAT Modeling for
Type II
39













 

TK
M
T
TK
M
T
dt
dM
BB
o
m

m
 exp)(
)0(
exp)(
m as the activation chemical potential per unit
mass,  is the activation energy for the process
and  is the wear amplitude described in the book
chapter.
Mass removal M per unit time for an activated process
Alec Feinberg – DfRSoft
Model Results
40
M=A ln(1+Bt) TK
T
Band
TK
A
B
B
m
m
)(

Note the logarithmic-in-time dependence in the activation wear
case differs from the Archard’s linear dependence (i.e. l=vt).
Here we find that when Bt is less than or of the order of 1, the
removal amount is large at first then is less as time accumulates
- a non linear in time removal. However when Bt>>1, the
removal is in ln(t) dependence. Also since ln(1+X)~X for
X<<1, then this can be approximated as M≈ABt =g(T)t for
Bt<<1, which upon substitution agrees with the Archard’s wear
equation.
Alec Feinberg – DfRSoft
Other TAT Model Results Described in the
Book Reference
 Ex. 11: TAT Transistor Aging Model
 Beta degradation of transistors
 MESFET Gate Leakage I Gate-Source Model
 Ex. 12: Creep Model primary & secondary phases
in one model
41
]1ln[)( tBAt D
]1ln[
)(
tBA
I
tI
GS
GS

D
]1ln[ tBA
L
L

D
e
Alec Feinberg – DfRSoft
FET Model to Data Results
42
Alec Feinberg – DfRSoft
Conclusion
 We presented two methods for finding damage
 Equilibrium thermodynamic assessment
 Concept of using entropy as a measure of degradation, how
to make such measurements, and the capability to assess
damage of complex systems – with an energy approach
using entropy damage measurements
 Non equilibrium thermodynamic assessment
 Using conjugate work (an energy approach) to assess
damage both cyclic and non cyclic over time, an improved
method for determining acceleration factors with the work
damage approach
 Provide enough information so those interested in this physics of
failure approach can decide if they wish to pursue this approach
6/16/2014
43
Alec Feinberg – DfRSoft
Appendix Misc. Examples
6/16/2014
44
Alec Feinberg – DfRSoft
Selected Results in Non Equilibrium
Thermodynamics
 Ex. 13: Corrosion where I is the corrosion current
 Ex. 14: In battery corrosion
6/16/2014
45
( 
2
1
22
11
)2,1(
tt
t
I
tI
AFcorrosionDamage 
( 







D

212
1
1
2
22
11 11
(expthen,1
TTRI
I
I
I
AFcorrosionDamage
e
t
t
t
t
Y
p
p
I
I
C
C
AF 






2
1
1
2
1
2
t
t
Where Cp is the battery capacity, t is the failure time, I is the corrosion
current at a one-ampere discharge rate
per Peukert’s Law
Note I can optionally be defined in a more sophisticated way
Alec Feinberg – DfRSoft
Contact Information
 Alec Feinberg
 Support@DfRSoft.com, www.DfRSoft.Com
 (617) 943-9034
46

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Thermodynamic Reliability

  • 1. Alec Feinberg – DfRSoft 1 Thermodynamic Reliability Dr. Alec Feinberg ©2014 ASQ Reliability Division www.asqrd.org
  • 2. DfRSoft… Thermodynamics Reliability Alec Feinberg, Ph.D. DfRSoft (www.dfrsoft.com) support@dfrsoft.com This Talk is available at: www.dfrsoft.com Select -> Free Publications On this webpage scroll down to: For ASQ members the video and the slides are also available at: http://www.asqrd.org/past-webinars/17 Equations in this talk are incorporated in DfRSoft software described at the website ASQ Talk Thermodynamic Reliability
  • 3. Alec Feinberg – DfRSoft Table of Contents:  Thermodynamics: a fundamental Science for Physics-of- failure  Equilibrium Damage Assessment Method  Non Equilibrium Damage Assessment Method  Conclusions  Appendix Examples 3
  • 4. Alec Feinberg – DfRSoft NEW BOOK: Only reference for this material The Physics of Degradation in Engineered Materials and Devices Editor: Dr Jonathan Swingler, Heriot-Watt University, England Major Contributor: Dr Alec Feinberg Published by: Momentum Press Due out at the end of this year 6/16/2014 4
  • 5. Alec Feinberg – DfRSoft Book Overview: The Physics of Degradation in Engineered Materials and Devices  Chapter 1: Introduction, Dr Jonathan Swingler  Chapter 2: The History of the Physics of Degradation, Dr Jeffrey Jones,  Chapter 3: Thermodynamics of Engineering, Prof Michael Bryant  Chapter 4: Thermodynamic Damage within Physics of Degradation, Dr Alec Feinberg  Chapter 5: Monitoring Degradation in the Field., Dr Xiandong Ma,  Chapter 6: Physics of Degradation in Polymers Electronics, Prof Hari et al  Chapter 7: Physics of Degradation in Ferroelectric Devices,Prof Paul Weaver 5
  • 6. Alec Feinberg – DfRSoft What is Thermodynamic Reliability?  A relatively new evolving science – now being recognized at the university level  It merges thermodynamics with reliability  It can help  Understand why materials degrade  Lead to new ways to make better and more meaningful measurements  Help in the making of new materials  Provide new approaches to solving and detecting degradation  Can be used at the system and component level  “To overlook the potential this science has in its ability to contribute to reliability physics would be a mistake” 6
  • 7. Alec Feinberg – DfRSoft Thermodynamics: a fundamental Science for Physics-of-failure  Thermodynamics Second Law can be used to describes aging damage  Second law in terms of device thermodynamic damage: The spontaneous irreversible damage processes that take place in a device interacting with its environment, do so in order to go towards thermodynamic equilibrium with its environment. 7
  • 8. Alec Feinberg – DfRSoft Examples  Semiconductor component, steel beam, or a bicycle tire  Each system interacts with its environment  The interaction between the system and environment degrade the system in accordance with our second law  Degradation is driven by this tendency of the system/device to come into thermodynamic equilibrium with its environment  Air in bike tire will deflate, steel beam will rust/corrode, semiconductor diffusion will start to occur 6/16/2014 8
  • 9. Alec Feinberg – DfRSoft Order in the System Decreases Causing Damage  Total order of the system plus its environment tends to decrease  The spontaneous processes creating disorder are irreversible  Air will not go back into the bike tire  Semiconductor will not spontaneously purify  Steal beam will continue to corrode  The original order created in a manufactured product diminishes in a random manner, and becomes measurable 6/16/2014 9
  • 10. Alec Feinberg – DfRSoft Assessing Damage in Equilibrium Thermodynamics 6/16/2014 10 Thermodynamic state variables define the equilibrium state of the system State variables examples:  temperature, volume, pressure, energy, entropy, mass, voltage, current, electric field, vibration displacements... Entropy or Free Energy are key variables to help assess damage
  • 11. Alec Feinberg – DfRSoft Damage Causes a Loss of Ability to do Useful Work  Disorder is associated with device damage  Entropy change measures damage  If entropy does not increase, there is no degradation  Not all entropy increase causes damage  Adding or removing heat, increase or decrease entropy. Yet device damage may not occur  Heating a transistor does not always cause permanent damage. We can put air back in the tire but we cannot repair a corroded steel beam. 6/16/201411
  • 12. Alec Feinberg – DfRSoft Entropy Damage  The entropy generated associated with device damage, is, “entropy damage”  Entropy Generated Sgen  Sgen=DStotal=DSdevice+DSenv ≥ 0  We can write entropy change in terms of the Non Damage and Damage?  DSdevice=DSdamage+DSnon-damage ≥ 0 6/16/2014 12
  • 13. Alec Feinberg – DfRSoft Measuring Entropy Damage 6/16/2014 13  Devise a gentle measurement process “f”, to measure entropy change in a time period Dt.  Make an initial measurement at time t1  DSf(t1)= S(t1 +Dt)-S(t1) time t1  Expose the device to aging until time t2 then make a 2nd measurement  DSf(t2) = S(t2 +Dt)-S(t2), where t2 >>t1  Entropy damage: DSf-Damage(t2,t1) =DSf(t2)-DSf(t1) ≥ 0  Note: Equal to 0 => no Damage
  • 14. Alec Feinberg – DfRSoft Measuring Entropy Damage (Cont.)  We can also look at the aging ratio Aging Ratio= DSf(t1) /DSf(t2) what is an acceptable % ??  Note the measurement process itself should not cause significant damage compared to aging damage  Aging stress must be limited to within reason so that we can repeat our measurement in a consistent manner.  See Selected Examples 6/16/2014 14
  • 15. Alec Feinberg – DfRSoft Complex Systems Entropy Damage  The total entropy of a system is equal to the sum of the entropies of the parts. If we isolate an area enclosing the system and its environment such that no heat, mass flows, or work flows in or out, then the entropy generated is  This is an important result for thermodynamic damage. If we can keep tabs on DSTotal over time, we can determine if aging is occurring even in a complex system.  See Selected Examples 6/16/2014 15  DDDD N i gsSurroundinSysiTotalGen SSSSS 1 0
  • 16. Alec Feinberg – DfRSoft Selected Results in Equilibrium Thermodynamics 16
  • 17. Alec Feinberg – DfRSoft Example 1 & 2  Simple Resistor Aging  Where Cp-Avg average specific heat of resistor, m=resistor mass, T2 room temperature  Time t1:T3 temp. rise when current I1 passes through  Time t2 (Month Later): T4 temp rise when current I1 passes through it  Example 2: Complex but similar Resistor Bank to Ex 1 6/16/2014 17 3 4 12 ),( T T LnmCttS avgpDamage D )()( 2423 TTLnTTLnA ratioAging  )()( 2423 TTLnTTLnA ratioAging 
  • 18. Alec Feinberg – DfRSoft Example 3  System of similar parts (incompressible constant volume)  Where CAvgi average specific heat of parts, mi= mass 6/16/2014 18 ))(( 1 1 2 1    DD N i N i iAvgiTotal T T LnCmSS )()( 1213 TTLnTTLnA ratioAging  At Initial Time T1=Initial Temperature of System T2=T1+Temperature rise of system in operation initially At a time later when aging has occurred T1=Initial Temperature of System T3=T1+Temperature rise of system in operation at later time
  • 19. Alec Feinberg – DfRSoft  Prior to a system being subjected to a harsh environment, we make an initial measurement M1+ at ambient temperature. Then the system is subjected to an unknown harsh environment. We then return the system to the lab and make a measurement M2 + in the exact same way that M1 was made. Find the aging ratio where  M1: T1=300oK, T2=360oK,  M2: T1=300oK, T3=400oK + Note: In the strict thermodynamic approach M1 and M2 should be made with the system thermally insulated. However, if we can make a measurement in a repeatable way say with a thermal couple on a specific surface of interest we should get reasonably accurate results. 58.1)300360()300400(  LnLnA ratioAging System has aged by a factor of 1.58. We next need to determine what aging ratio is critical. Solution: 19 Numeric Example 4
  • 20. Alec Feinberg – DfRSoft Example 5  Noise can be considered a system level state variable  Noise Degradation of isolated system and environment with system exhibiting white noise – Thermodynamic entropy analysis results show noise variance is a key state variable .  Where  At Initial Time  st-initial=Initial standard deviation of white noise  At a time later when aging has occurred  st-final=Final or later time value of the standard deviation of white noise 20 )log( 2 1 )1,2()()( 2 1 2 2 12 t t ttDamage ttSXSXSS s s DD
  • 21. Alec Feinberg – DfRSoft Numeric Example 6  Prior to a system being subjected to a harsh environment, we make an initial measurement M1+ of an engine vibration (fluctuation) profile. Then the system is subjected to an unknown harsh environment. We then return the system to the lab and make a measurement M2 + in the exact same way that M1 was made. Find the aging ratio where  M1: Engine exhibits a constant PSD characteristic of 3Grms in the bandwidth from 10 to 500 Hz  M2: Engine exhibits a constant PSD characteristic of 5Grms in the bandwidth from 10 to 500 Hz System noise damage ratio is then: (note variance=Grms for white noise 47.1)3()5( 22 _  LogLogDamage rationoise 21
  • 22. Alec Feinberg – DfRSoft Assessing Damage in Non Equilibrium Thermodynamic Equilibrium thermodynamics provides methods for describing the initial and final equilibrium system states, without describing the details of how the system evolves to final state. While, non-equilibrium thermodynamics describes in more detail what happens during the evolution to the final equilibrium state. 22
  • 23. Alec Feinberg – DfRSoft Assessing Damage in Non Equilibrium Thermodynamic  Here we are concerned with the aging path. How does aging occur over time as opposed to just assessing the system’s state at any time point.  We can use the prior method and sample more to trace out an aging path  However, using this method, we need to keep track and measure a number of states throughout the aging process.  Often we are able to model the degradation (damage) so we do not have to make many measurements. 6/16/2014 23 Aging path
  • 24. Alec Feinberg – DfRSoft Conjugate Work & Free Energy Approach  The work done on the system by the environment has the form  Associated with work causing damage by the environment on the device is a loss of free energy F 6/16/2014 24   a X X aa dXYWdXYW 2 1 or Work =(Ffinal -Finitial ) F(x)D
  • 25. Alec Feinberg – DfRSoft  Non Equilibrium Thermodynamics Aging State  Equilibrium Thermodynamics Non Aging State Entropy definition Free energy definition Entropy is as large as possible Free energy is as small as possible dSTotal dt  0 dSTotal dt  0 d dt   0 d dt   0 Damage: Entropy Increases or Free Energy Decreases
  • 26. Alec Feinberg – DfRSoft Conjugate Work Variable  Some common thermodynamic work systems 6/16/2014 26 Common Systems W Generalized force Y Generalized Displacement X Mechanical Work W=YdX Gas Pressure (-P) Volume (V) -P dV Chemical Chemical Potential (m) Molar number of atoms or molecules (N) m dN Spring Force (f) Distance (x) f dx Mechanical Wire/Bar Tension (J) Length (L) J dL Mechanical Strain Stress (s) Strain (e) s de Electric Polarization Polarization (-p) Electric Field (E) -p dE Capacitance Voltage (V) Charge (q) V dq Induction Current (I) Magnetic flux () Id Magnetic Polarizability Magnetic Intensity (H) Magnetization (M) H dM Linear System Velocity (v) Momentum (m) v dm Rotating Fluids Angular velocity (w) Angular momentum (L) wdL Resistor Voltage (V) Current (I)  dtVI
  • 27. Alec Feinberg – DfRSoft Thermodynamic Damage Ratio Method for Tracking Degradation  Total work – some work cause damage and some work is due to damage inefficiencies unrelated to system work damage. In theory we can track the true damage, the types of damage  The work damage ratio: This consists of the work performed to the work needed to cause system failure. In system failure, we exhaust the maximum amount of useful system work.  All work found must be taken over the same work path. 6/16/2014 27 T m i iT d m i id W w DamageEffectiveand W w Damage    11
  • 28. Alec Feinberg – DfRSoft Damage Ratio (Cont.)  Cyclic damage can be written over n cycles as  Non cyclic damage 6/16/2014 28 cyclictoworkcyclicTotal workcyclicPartial Failure W nDamage nndXY    failureforneededworkTotal workPartial Failure W YdX Damage   Same Work Path
  • 29. Alec Feinberg – DfRSoft Determining Acceleration Factors Using Damage Ratio  When the degradation path is separable for time  Damage between two different environmental stresses Y1 and Y2, and failure occurs for each at time t1 and t2 then the damage value of 1 requires that  Then damage can be written (t2 AF t1) 6/16/2014 29 ),, 2 ( ),, 1 ( 1 2)2,1(1 1 ),, 1 ( 2 ),, 2 ( a EkYf a EkYf AFor a EkYf a EkYf Damage  t t t t tEkYfdt dt tdX tYw a t t f i ),,( )( )(   1 )2,1(),, 2 ( 1 ),, 1 ( 2 ),, 2 ( 1 ),, 1 ( tt AF a EkYf t a EkYf a EkYf t a EkYf Damage 
  • 30. Alec Feinberg – DfRSoft Selected Results in Non Equilibrium Thermodynamics  Ex. 7: Creep (s is mechanical stress , ep strain) 6/16/2014 30               i p i i p i i iAF tt Damage 1),1( tt pM TT KE c Ba eAF 1 )1( 2 1 ) 11 (/ 1 21                        s s t t pMpMP P tTBdtptBdt dt d dw 111 )(    ss e ses
  • 31. Alec Feinberg – DfRSoft Selected Results in Non Equilibrium Thermodynamics  Ex. 8: Mechanical Abrasive Wear (non temperature stress related) 6/16/2014 31               i i i i i iAF tt Damage 1),1( tt 2 2 1 2 1 1 2 1 2 )1,2(              P P A A AF   t t V=removed volume of the softer material, P=normal load (lbs), L is the sliding distance (feet), H=hardness of the softer material in psi, wear volume V=AD where A is the area and D is the depth of the removed. Then writing L= t for two sliding surfaces rubbing against each other at a constant velocity , t failure time. HA tkP dt HA kP dt dt dD FdxFw  22  
  • 32. Alec Feinberg – DfRSoft Cyclic Work – How Much Damage/Cycle?  Cyclic Work cause damage each cycle (Compress-Decompress)  To estimate the amount of damage we first need to find the total amount of cyclic work done (i.e. the sum of all the cyclic work performed for each cycle)  For stress and strain type cyclic work the total work is given by  The damage is the ratio 32    n i Areai Sdew 1 )cycle( failureforneededworkTotal cycleperworkSum Failure W n i i Area Sde Damage      1
  • 33. Alec Feinberg – DfRSoft Fatigue Damage Using Miner’s Rule  Miner’s rule is a popular approximation for finding damage  Work W is a function of the cyclic area. Miner’s empirically figured that stress S, cycles n were the main factors for damage  In our framework this means W n=W(S, n)  Miner also empirically assumed that the work for n cycles of the same cyclic size is all that is needed – in our framework this means  W n= n W(S) (Miner’s assumption=reality is work is reduced each S cycle) 33 ... )()(...)()( 22112211    FailureFailureFailure W SWn W SWn W SWnSWn Damage ...) 3 ( 33 ) 2 ( 22 ) 1 ( 11  SWNSWNSWN Failure W  i i N in N n N n N n SWN SWn SWN SWn SWN SWn Damage ... 3 3 2 2 1 1... ) 3 ( 3 ) 3 ( 3 ) 2 ( 2 ) 2 ( 2 ) 1 ( 1 ) 1 ( 1
  • 34. Alec Feinberg – DfRSoft Example: Miner’s Rule  Then Miner’s rule can be modified as  Ni = AF(1, i) N1 6/16/2014 34    k i NiAF i n NAF n NAF n N n DamageEffective 1 1 ),1( 1 )3,1( 3 1 )2,1( 2 1 1
  • 35. Alec Feinberg – DfRSoft  Miner’s Rule for Secondary Batteries  Miner’s rule using the n cyclic sum over the Depth of Discharge % (DoD%) ith level stress for battery life pertaining to a certain failure (permanent) voltage drop (such as 10%) of the initially rated battery voltage and then the effective damage done in ni DoDs% can be assessed when Ni is known for the ith DoD level. 6/16/201435    k i i N i n DamageEffective 1 Non Equilibrium Thermodynamics, Example 9
  • 36. Alec Feinberg – DfRSoft Thermally Activated Time-dependent (TAT) device degradation models  Arrhenius Aging Due to Small Parametric Change (due to a changes in the free energy) 36 da dt T ay KBT        ( ) exp 1        TK T B o )0( exp)(          TK a dt da B )( exp   ... 2 )0()( 2 2 1  y a aya  where y1 and y2 are given by 2 2 21 )0()0( a yand a y      For small parametric change we have
  • 37. Alec Feinberg – DfRSoft Solving 37 a P P A B t   D ln[ ]1 TK yT Band y TK A B B 1 1 )(  Examples of Ln(1+B time) aging law with (a) similar to primary and secondary creep stages and (b) similar to primary battery voltage loss. Other key examples include Type II wear, transistor aging.
  • 38. Alec Feinberg – DfRSoft Wear Modeling  Common wear types 38 Type I wear model is covered by the well known Archards linear Wear Model. When logarithmic-in-time aging occurs as is illustrated in Type II wear shown in the Figure (often observed in metals. Here we apply the TAT model. This is characterized by an initially high wear rate then, a steady state low wear rate. Type I shows the case of steady wear in time, Type III typically observed in lapping and polishing for surface finishing of ceramics.
  • 39. Alec Feinberg – DfRSoft Example 10 : Wear TAT Modeling for Type II 39                 TK M T TK M T dt dM BB o m  m  exp)( )0( exp)( m as the activation chemical potential per unit mass,  is the activation energy for the process and  is the wear amplitude described in the book chapter. Mass removal M per unit time for an activated process
  • 40. Alec Feinberg – DfRSoft Model Results 40 M=A ln(1+Bt) TK T Band TK A B B m m )(  Note the logarithmic-in-time dependence in the activation wear case differs from the Archard’s linear dependence (i.e. l=vt). Here we find that when Bt is less than or of the order of 1, the removal amount is large at first then is less as time accumulates - a non linear in time removal. However when Bt>>1, the removal is in ln(t) dependence. Also since ln(1+X)~X for X<<1, then this can be approximated as M≈ABt =g(T)t for Bt<<1, which upon substitution agrees with the Archard’s wear equation.
  • 41. Alec Feinberg – DfRSoft Other TAT Model Results Described in the Book Reference  Ex. 11: TAT Transistor Aging Model  Beta degradation of transistors  MESFET Gate Leakage I Gate-Source Model  Ex. 12: Creep Model primary & secondary phases in one model 41 ]1ln[)( tBAt D ]1ln[ )( tBA I tI GS GS  D ]1ln[ tBA L L  D e
  • 42. Alec Feinberg – DfRSoft FET Model to Data Results 42
  • 43. Alec Feinberg – DfRSoft Conclusion  We presented two methods for finding damage  Equilibrium thermodynamic assessment  Concept of using entropy as a measure of degradation, how to make such measurements, and the capability to assess damage of complex systems – with an energy approach using entropy damage measurements  Non equilibrium thermodynamic assessment  Using conjugate work (an energy approach) to assess damage both cyclic and non cyclic over time, an improved method for determining acceleration factors with the work damage approach  Provide enough information so those interested in this physics of failure approach can decide if they wish to pursue this approach 6/16/2014 43
  • 44. Alec Feinberg – DfRSoft Appendix Misc. Examples 6/16/2014 44
  • 45. Alec Feinberg – DfRSoft Selected Results in Non Equilibrium Thermodynamics  Ex. 13: Corrosion where I is the corrosion current  Ex. 14: In battery corrosion 6/16/2014 45 (  2 1 22 11 )2,1( tt t I tI AFcorrosionDamage  (         D  212 1 1 2 22 11 11 (expthen,1 TTRI I I I AFcorrosionDamage e t t t t Y p p I I C C AF        2 1 1 2 1 2 t t Where Cp is the battery capacity, t is the failure time, I is the corrosion current at a one-ampere discharge rate per Peukert’s Law Note I can optionally be defined in a more sophisticated way
  • 46. Alec Feinberg – DfRSoft Contact Information  Alec Feinberg  Support@DfRSoft.com, www.DfRSoft.Com  (617) 943-9034 46