51 behavior text

[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]

[object Object],[object Object],Figure 51.1

[object Object],[object Object]

[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]

What Is Behavior? ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],Figure 51.2 Dorsal fin Anal fin

Proximate and Ultimate Questions ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]

Ethology ,[object Object],[object Object]

Fixed Action Patterns ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]

[object Object],[object Object],Figure 51.3a (a) A male three-spined stickleback fish shows its red underside.

[object Object],[object Object],Figure 51.3b (b) The realistic model at the top, without a red underside, produces no aggressive response in a male three-spined stickleback fish. The other models, with red undersides, produce strong responses.

[object Object],Figure 51.4 ULTIMATE CAUSE: By chasing away other male sticklebacks, a male decreases the chance that eggs laid in his nesting territory will be fertilized by another male. BEHAVIOR: A male stickleback fish attacks other male sticklebacks that invade its nesting territory. PROXIMATE CAUSE: The red belly of the intruding male acts as a sign stimulus that releases aggression in a male stickleback.

Imprinting ,[object Object],[object Object]

[object Object],Figure 51.5 BEHAVIOR: Young geese follow and imprint on their mother. PROXIMATE CAUSE: During an early, critical developmental stage, the young geese observe their mother moving away from them and calling. ULTIMATE CAUSE: On average, geese that follow and imprint on their mother receive more care and learn necessary skills, and thus have a greater chance of surviving than those that do not follow their mother.

Directed Movements ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]

Kinesis ,[object Object],[object Object]

[object Object],[object Object],Figure 51.7a Dry open area Moist site under leaf (a) Kinesis increases the chance that a sow bug will encounter and stay in a moist environment.

Taxis ,[object Object],[object Object]

[object Object],[object Object],Figure 51.7b Direction of river current (b) Positive rheotaxis keeps trout facing into the current, the direction from which most food comes.

Migration ,[object Object],[object Object],Figure 51.8

Animal Signals and Communication ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]

Chemical Communication ,[object Object],[object Object]

[object Object],[object Object],Figure 51.9a, b (a) Minnows are widely dispersed in an aquarium before an alarm substance is introduced. (b) Within seconds of the alarm substance being introduced, minnows aggregate near the bottom of the aquarium and reduce their movement.

Auditory Communication ,[object Object],[object Object],Charles Henry, Lucía Martínez, and ent Holsinger crossed males and females of Chrysoperla plorabunda and Chrysoperla johnsoni, two morphologically identical species of lacewings that sing different courtship songs. EXPERIMENT SONOGRAMS Chrysoperla plorabunda parent Vibration volleys Standard repeating unit Chrysoperla johnsoni parent Volley period crossed with Standard repeating unit The researchers recorded and compared the songs of the male and female parents with those of the hybrid offspring that had been raised in isolation from other lacewings. Volley period

The F 1 hybrid offspring sing a song in which the length of the standard repeating unit is similar to that sung by the Chrysoperla plorabunda parent, but the volley period, that is, the interval between vibration volleys, is more similar to that of the Chrysoperla johnsoni parent. RESULTS The results of this experiment indicate that the songs sung by Chrysoperla plorabunda and Chrysoperla johnsoni are under genetic control. CONCLUSION Standard repeating unit Volley period F 1 hybrids, typical phenotype

Genetic Influences on Mating and Parental Behavior ,[object Object],[object Object]

[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]

Dietary Influence on Mate Choice Behavior ,[object Object],[object Object]

[object Object],[object Object],Figure 51.12 William Etges raised a D. mojavensis population from Baja California and a D. mojavensis population from Sonora on three different culture media: artificial medium, agria cactus (the Baja host plant), and organ pipe cactus (the Sonoran host plant). From each culture medium, Etges collected 15 male and female Baja D. mojavensis pairs and 15 Sonoran pairs and observed the numbers of matings between males and females from the two populations. EXPERIMENT When D. mojavensis had been raised on artificial medium, females from the Sonoran population showed a strong preference for Sonoran males (a). When D. mojavensis had been raised on cactus medium, the Sonoran females mated with Baja and Sonoran males in approximately equal frequency (b). RESULTS The difference in mate selection shown by females that developed on different diets indicates that mate choice by females of Sonoran populations of D. mojavensis is strongly influenced by the dietary environment in which larvae develop. CONCLUSION 100 75 50 25 0 Artificial Organ pipe cactus Agria cactus Culture medium With Baja males With Sonoran males (b) Proportion of matings by Sonoran females (a)

Social Environment and Aggressive Behavior ,[object Object],[object Object]

Learning ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]

Habituation ,[object Object],[object Object]

Spatial Learning ,[object Object],[object Object]

[object Object],[object Object],After the mother visited the nest and flew away, Tinbergen moved the pinecones a few feet to one side of the nest. Figure 51.14 CONCLUSION A female digger wasp excavates and cares for four or five separate underground nests, flying to each nest daily with food for the single larva in the nest. To test his hypothesis that the wasp uses visual landmarks to locate the nests, Niko Tinbergen marked one nest with a ring of pinecones. EXPERIMENT Nest When the wasp returned, she flew to the center of the pinecone circle instead of to the nearby nest. Repeating the experiment with many wasps, Tinbergen obtained the same results. RESULTS The experiment supported the hypothesis that digger wasps use landmarks to keep track of their nests. Nest No Nest

Cognitive Maps ,[object Object],[object Object]

Associative Learning ,[object Object],[object Object]

[object Object],[object Object],Figure 51.15 Before stimulus Influx of water alone Influx of alarm substances Influx of pike odor Day 1 Day 3 Control group Control group Experimental group Experimental group Relative activity level

Cognition and Problem Solving ,[object Object],[object Object]

7 ,[object Object],[object Object],Figure 51.17

Genetic and Environmental Interaction in Learning ,[object Object],[object Object]

Behavioral Variation in Natural Populations ,[object Object],[object Object]

Variation in Prey Selection ,[object Object],[object Object],Figure 51.18a, b (a) A garter snake ( Thamnophis elegans ) (b) A banana slug ( Ariolimus californicus ); not to scale

Variation in Aggressive Behavior ,[object Object],[object Object],Figure 51.19 60 Population 50 40 30 20 10 0 Time to attack (seconds) Field Lab-raised generation 1 Lab-raised generation 2 Desert grassland population Riparian population

Experimental Evidence for Behavioral Evolution ,[object Object],[object Object]

Laboratory Studies of Drosophila Foraging Behavior ,[object Object],[object Object],Figure 51.20 14 12 10 8 6 2 0 Average path length (cm) 4 L1 L2 L3 H1 H2 H3 H4 H5 D. Melanogaster lineages Low population density High population density

Migratory Patterns in Blackcaps ,[object Object],[object Object]

[object Object],[object Object],Figure 51.21a (a) Blackcaps placed in a funnel cage left marks indicating the direction in which they were trying to migrate.

[object Object],[object Object],Figure 51.21b (b) Wintering blackcaps captured in Britain and their laboratory-raised offspring had a migratory orientation toward the west, while young birds from Germany were oriented toward the southwest. N E S W Adults from Britain and F 1 offspring of British adults N E S W Young from SW Germany Mediterranean Sea BRITAIN GERMANY

Foraging Behavior ,[object Object],[object Object]

Energy Costs and Benefits ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]

[object Object],[object Object],Figure 51.22 Total flight height (number of drops  drop height) Height of drop (m) 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Average number of drops 2 3 5 7 15 Average number of drops Drop height preferred by crows 125 100 25 75 50 Total flight height

[object Object],[object Object],Figure 51.23 Low prey density High prey density 33% 33% 33% 32.5% 32.5% 35% 2% 40% 57% 100% 50% 35% 14% 33% 33% 33% Small prey Medium prey Large prey Small prey Medium prey Large prey Small prey Medium prey Large prey Percentage available Predicted percentage in diet Observed percentage in diet Large prey at far distance Small prey at middle distance Small prey at close distance

Risk of Predation ,[object Object],[object Object],Figure 51.24 70 60 40 30 20 10 0 Predation occurrence (%) 50 Relative deer use Relative deer use Predation risk Open Forest edge Habitat Forest interior 0 5 10 15 20

Mating Behavior and Mate Choice ,[object Object],[object Object]

Mating Systems and Mate Choice ,[object Object],[object Object]

[object Object],[object Object],Figure 51.25a (a) Since monogamous species, such as these trumpeter swans, are often monomorphic, males and females are difficult to distinguish using external characteristics only.

[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],Figure 51.25b Among polygynous species, such as elk, the male (left) is often highly ornamented. (b)

[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],Figure 51.25c (c) In polyandrous species, such as these Wilson’s phalaropes, females (top) are generally more ornamented than males.

[object Object],[object Object],Figure 51.26 Eggs

Sexual Selection and Mate Choice ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]

[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],Figure 51.27

[object Object],[object Object],Figure 51.28 Experimental Groups Control Group Parents not ornamented Both parents ornamented Males ornamented Females ornamented Results Females reared by ornamented parents or ornamented fathers preferred ornamented males as mates. Females reared by ornamented mothers or nonornamented parents showed no preference for either ornamented or nonornamented males. Males reared by all experimental groups showed no preference for either ornamented or nonornamented female mates.

[object Object],[object Object],Figure 51.31 Large Paracerceis  males defend harems of females within intertidal sponges.      Tiny  males are able to invade and live within large harems.  males mimic female morphology and behavior and do not elicit a defensive reponse in  males and so are able to gain access to guarded harems.

Applying Game Theory ,[object Object],[object Object]

Altruism ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]

Inclusive Fitness ,[object Object],[object Object]

Hamilton’s Rule and Kin Selection ,[object Object],[object Object]

[object Object],[object Object],Figure 51.34 Parent A Parent B  OR Sibling 1 Sibling 2 1 / 2 (0.5) probability 1 / 2 (0.5) probability

[object Object],[object Object],Male Female Age (months) Mean distance moved from natal burrow (m) 300 200 100 0 0 2 3 4 12 13 14 15 25 26 Figure 51.35

Reciprocal Altruism ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]

Social Learning ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]

Mate Choice Copying ,[object Object],[object Object]

[object Object],[object Object],Figure 51.36 Male guppies with varying degrees of coloration Control Sample Female guppies prefer males with more orange coloration. Experimental Sample Female model engaged in courtship with less orange male Female guppies prefer less orange males that are associated with another female.

Social Learning of Alarm Calls ,[object Object],[object Object]

Evolution and Human Culture ,[object Object],[object Object]

51 behavior text

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